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INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION
OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Plants in Danger
What do we know?
STEPHEN D. DAVIS, STEPHEN J.M. DROOP, PATRICK GREGERSON,
LOUISE HENSON, CHRISTINE J. LEON, JANE LAMLEIN
VILLA-LOBOS, HUGH SYNGE AND JANA ZANTOVSKA
Threatened Plants Unit,
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre
c/o The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.
Published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K. 1986
IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is a
network of governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), scientists and other
conservation experts, joined together to promote the protection and sustainable use of living
resources.
Founded in 1948, IUCN has more than 500 member organizations from 116 countries,
including 58 State Members. Its six Commissions consist of more than 2000 experts on
threatened species, protected areas, ecology, environmental planning, environmental policy,
law and administration, and environmental education. IUCN
@ monitors the status of ecosystems and species throughout the world;
@ plans conservation action, both at strategic level through the World Conservation Strategy
and at the programme level through its programme of conservation for sustainable
development;
@ promotes such action by governments, inter-governmental bodies and non-governmental
organizations;
@ provides the assistance and advice necessary to achieve such action.
From 1984 IUCN and the World Wildlife Fund have been implementing a Plant Conservation
Programme, designed ‘‘to assert the fundamental importance of plants in all conservation
activities’’. Plants in Danger: What do we know? is a part of this programme.
The IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (CMC) is the division of [UCN that provides a
data service to IUCN and to the conservation and development community. CMC’s primary
function is the continuous collection, analysis, interpretation and dissemination of data as a
basis for conservation. CMC produces a wide variety of specialist outputs and analyses as well
as major outputs such as the Red Data Books and Protected Areas Directories. CMC is based
in the U.K. at Cambridge and Kew. Enquiries about the centre or book orders should be
addressed to:
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre,
219(c) Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, U.K.
The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers or boundaries.
Published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K. 1986
Prepared with financial support from the World Wildlife Fund, the Trust Fund for the United
Nations Environment Stamp Conservation Fund, the United Nations Environment Programme
and the Natural Environment Research Council (U.K.) on behalf of the European Research
Councils through the European Science Foundation.
© 1986 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources/United Nations
Environment Programme
ISBN 2-88032-707-5
Printed by Unwin Brothers Ltd, The Gresham Press, Old Woking, Surrey, U.K.
Typeset by Parchment (Oxford) Ltd., 60 Hurst Street, Oxford OX4 1HD
Cover design by James Butler and Stephen Droop
Figures by Reginald Piggott
Book design by James Butler
Cover photograph by M.P. Price (Bruce Coleman Ltd.): Fire, Merritt Island, Florida, U.S.A.
Contents
Introductory Chapters
Preface
Acknowledgements
Outline of the book
Plants in Danger: What we know so far
Constraints to the identification of threatened species
Conclusions for the future
Definitions of the IUCN Red Data Categories
References for introduction
Country and Island Accounts
Afghanistan
Agalega Islands
Albania
Aleutian Islands
Algeria
American Samoa
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antarctica
Antigua and Barbuda
Antipodes Islands
Argentina
Ascension Island
Auckland Islands
Australia
Austria
Azores
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bismarck Archipelago
Bolivia
Botswana
Bougainville
Bounty Islands
Brazil
British Indian Ocean Territory (Chagos Archipelago)
British Virgin Islands
Page number
| Ol ee
NAANHAFWNTTCUOAAKHAH ANN
nN
Nn
26
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burma
Burundi
Cameroon
Campbell Islands
Canada
Canary Islands
Canton and Enderbury Islands
Cape Verde
Cargados Carajos
Caroline Islands
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Chatham Islands
Chile
China
Christmas Island
Clipperton Island
Coco, Isla del
Coco Islands
Cocos Islands
Colombia
Comoro Islands
Congo
Cook Islands
Coral Sea Islands
Costa Rica
Cuba
Cyprus
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
D’Entrecasteaux Islands
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Easter Island
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Ethiopia
Faeroe Islands
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
South Georgia
South Sandwich Islands
Fiji
Finland
France
Corsica
French Guiana
Gabon
Galapagos Islands
Gambia
Gambier Islands
German Democratic Republic
Germany, Federal Republic of
Ghana
Gibraltar
Glorieuses, Iles
Great Barrier Reef Islands
Greece
Crete
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe and Martinique
Guam
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Hawaii
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Sardinia
Sicily
Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Japan
Johnston Island
Jordan
Juan Fernandez
Kampuchea
Kazan Retto
Kenya
Kermadec Islands
Kiribati
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea, Republic of
Kuwait
Vii
Contents
123
125
127
128
130
130
131
133
139
140
141
141
142
145
147
147
148
151
152
154
155
156
157
158
161
163
164
166
168
173
178
180
181
184
186
190
190
192
193
195
197
198
199
201
202
202
204
205
206
207
209
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Lakshadweep 210
Laos 210
Lebanon 211
Lesotho 212
Liberia 213
Libya 214
Liechtenstein 216
Lord Howe Island 217
Louisiade Archipelago 218
Luxembourg 218
Macau 220
Macquarie Island 220
Madagascar 221
Madeira Islands 223
Malawi 225
Malaysia 226
Maldives 230
Mali 231
Malta 231
Mariana Islands 233
Marion and Prince Edward Islands 234
Marquesas Islands 235
Marshall Islands 236
Mauritania 237
Mauritius 238
Mexico 240
Midway Islands 245
Minami-Tori-Shima 245
Mongolia 246
Montserrat 247
Morocco 247
Mozambique 249
Namibia 250
Nauru 251
Navassa Island 252
Nepal 252
Netherlands 254
Netherlands Antilles 258
New Caledonia 259
New Zealand 261
Nicaragua 264
Niger 265
Nigeria 266
Niue 268
Norfolk Island 268
Norway 269
Ogasawara-Gunto 271
Oman 272
Pakistan 273
Panama 275
Papua New Guinea 277
Viii
Contents
Paraguay 279
Peru 281
Philippines 283
Pitcairn Islands 285
Poland 287
Portugal 290
Puerto Rico 292
Qatar 295
Réunion 296
Rodrigues 297
Romania 299
Rwanda 301
Ryukyu Retto 303
St Helena 304
St Kitts-Nevis 305
St Lucia 306
St-Pierre and Miquelon 307
St Vincent 307
Salvage Islands 308
Sao Tomé and Principe 309
Saudi Arabia 310
Senegal 312
Seychelles 313
Sierra Leone 316
Singapore 318
Society Islands 319
Socotra 320
Solomon Islands 321
Somalia 323
South Africa 324
Spain 330
Balearic Islands 334
Sri Lanka 335
Sudan 337
Suriname 339
Svalbard 340
Swaziland 341
Sweden 343
Switzerland 345
Syria 348
Taiwan 349
Tanzania 351
Thailand 353
Togo 355
Tokelau 356
Tonga 356
Trinidad and Tobago 357
Tristan da Cunha 359
Trobriand Islands 360
Tromelin 360
Tuamotu Archipelago 361
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Tubuai
Tunisia
Turkey
Turks and Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
Channel Islands
United States
Miscellaneous Islands
United States Virgin Islands
Uruguay
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Islands
Viet Nam
Wake Island
Wallis and Futuna
Western Sahara
Western Samoa
Yemen, Democratic
Yemen Arab Republic
Yugoslavia
Zaire
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Appendices
Appendix 1: General and Regional References
Appendix 2: Index to Bibliography
Appendix 3: The Implementation of Conservation Conventions relevant to Plants
Geographical Index
Preface
Over the last ten years, a vast amount has been written and published on threatened plants,
often in rather inaccessible places. Numerous countries have prepared Red Data Books of
their threatened flora. Yet it is also clear that plant conservation is not succeeding in most
parts of the world and is not yet fully accepted as a fundamental part of conservation as a
whole. One reason may simply be that many conservationists do not know how much
information on plants is already available. This would not be unduly surprising, as most
efforts to list threatened plants have emerged from herbaria and botanic gardens, rather
than from conservation groups. Botanists are concerned about the threats to the plants
they study from day to day and anxious to provide at least an assessment of the problem.
Yet, although individual botanists may be the best people to assess which species are in
danger, conservation organizations, with successful track records in other fields of
conservation, are surely in a far better position to turn that knowledge into effective action
on the ground.
The purpose of this book is to provide these conservation organizations with a concise
guide to information on threatened plants. Rather than providing information on each
threatened plant, which would be impossible in one book, we show how to find that
information. The entries are arranged alphabetically by country, so as to answer the
questions, ‘‘Where can I find out about the flora of any country, which species in that
flora are threatened, and who may be trying to save them?’’
The book forms part of the IUCN/WWFEF Plant Conservation Programme. This is a set of
around 90 activities, derived from the philosophy and principles of the World
Conservation Strategy. Long overdue, its aim is two-fold: firstly, to provide a strategic
basis for plant conservation, and secondly, by means of model projects, to show how this
knowledge can be applied on the ground. As part of the first aim, IUCN is preparing about
10 books and major papers, of which this book is one. Others include an illustrated
account for the layman of why plant conservation is important (Green Inheritance by
Anthony Huxley, 1985) and a Conservation Strategy for Botanic Gardens (1985-6). At
early stages of preparation are a book on the principles and practice of plant conservation,
and a Red Data Book of plant sites where high numbers of plant species could be saved.
Other activities cover education, training and institution-building. Special themes, in
addition to threatened plants, are the issue of genetic resources, the status of economic
plants and the role of botanic gardens in conservation.
The concepts developed in the strategic part of the programme are being applied in field
projects in 16 selected countries. These include, for example, a rescue programme for the
critically endangered Mauritian flora; land use surveys of threatened areas like the
Usambaras and Ulugurus of Tanzania; support for large plant-rich national parks like La
Amistad (Costa Rica), Tai (Ivory Coast) and Manu (Peru); support for planning networks
of protected areas in Borneo and Irian Jaya; conservation of medicinal plants in Sri
Lanka, of teosintes in Mexico and of multipurpose palm species in Latin America; and
education about plant conservation in India.
As these activities show, research on threatened plants and rescue of their populations are
only part of plant conservation. Yet it is on this aspect that most of the research and data-
gathering has concentrated, at least until very recently. Plants in Danger: What do we
know? charts the results of that work, but intentionally does not extend to other, more
recent, topics in plant conservation. For instance, few references are given on the
conservation of economic plants; in this case, and in others, the priority is not so much
data synthesis as conceptual development and pilot projects which will show, for example,
xi
how the genetic variation of economic plants can best be conserved in situ as well as ex
situ. As the spotlight widens to include topics such as the conservation of medicinal plants
and the better use of traditional knowledge about plants useful to man, it seemed sensible
to document the quite remarkable progress that has been made in the last decade or so in
finding out which species are threatened.
It is our hope and intention that the knowledge outlined in this book will encourage action
to save the threatened plants documented so assiduously by botanists all over the world.
Although more research is needed, enough is known about the threats to plant life for
action to be taken now: for instance, creation of national parks and biosphere reserves,
better use of botanic gardens, and enactment of more effective laws to control plant
collecting and plant trade. For of all the changes that man can make to the Earth, none is
more permanent or more wasteful than the extinction of a species.
xii
Acknowledgements
This book could not have been written without a great deal of help from many people. It is
our pleasure to acknowledge and thank over 400 botanists who helped us and contributed
information. Virtually all whom we approached offered their help. We are most grateful.
The response we received, literally overwhelming at times, and the masses of additional
data accumulated, are the main reason the book was delayed from its original publication
date at the end of 1984.
We would like to thank especially those scientists who reviewed and commented on the
drafts for whole regions and contributed so much to the book. Their help was vital in
ensuring overall consistency and compieteness. In some cases, reviewers most kindly spent
many hours carefully checking manuscripts, finding obscure and difficult references for us
and sharing their knowledge with us. Here we thank in particular C.D. Adams
(Caribbean), P.S. Ashton (Asia), M.M.J. van Balgooy (Asia), F.R. Fosberg (Pacific), J.B.
Gillett (Africa), B. MacBryde (New World), R. Polhill (Africa), G.T. Prance (New World
Tropics), P.H. Raven and his colleagues at Missouri Botanical Garden (all the tropics) and
V.M. Toledo (Latin America). We also thank L. McMahan and J. McKnight at
WWF-U.S. for their help with the New World accounts and WWF-U.S. in general for
their continued support to CMC. We thank especially those botanists who contributed
country accounts for us; we want to mention here the contribution of R.A. DeFilipps, who
not only wrote the account for the U.S.A. (with P. Gregerson), by far the longest in the
book, but also gave extensive help with many other accounts.
We also warmly thank our colleagues in the Library and Herbarium at Kew. Preparing the
book has drawn heavily on the splendid facilities of the Kew Library and we are most
grateful to the staff for patiently coping with our many requests. Above all, we would like
to thank the staff of the Herbarium, in particular the Keeper, G.LI. Lucas, for their
continued support. The Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN’s Conservation Monitoring
Centre developed within the Kew Herbarium and continues to benefit greatly from its
presence there. IUCN is deeply grateful to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and to its
Director, E.A. Bell, for their magnificent support that has now lasted over 10 years.
The sections for countries of Latin America were written by Patrick Gregerson and Jane
Lamlein Villa-Lobos of the Smithsonian Institution, with whom IUCN has a co-operative
arrangement for data-gathering on threatened plants in that region. IUCN is most grateful
to the Smithsonian for their help and acknowledges with pleasure the contributions of
their scientists.
In a sense the real authors of this book are the very many experts who spared time to
comment, and in many cases rewrite, the accounts for the places on which they are the
acknowledged experts. For their help and for sharing their knowledge, we thank E.
Adjanohoun, J.M. Aguilar Cumes, J.R. Akeroyd, D.M. Al-Eisawi, A.H. Al-Khayat, A.
Alnen, R.M. Alfaro, S.I. Ali, S. Andrews, G.W. Argus, E.O.A. Asibey, G.G. Aymonin,
J.A. Bacone, P. Bamps, C. Barclay, W.T. Barker, T.M. Barkley, T. Baytop, H.E. Beaty,
S. Beck, L.J. Beloussova, D. Benkert, G. Benl, R.W. Boden, P. Boniface, I. Bonnelly de
Calventi, A. Borhidi, J. Bosser, D. Bramwell, F.J. Breteler, P. Broussalis, R.E. Brown,
R.K. Brummitt, W. Burger, W. Burley, R. Burton, R. Bye, L.J.T. Cadet, J. Cerovsky,
J.D. Chapman, A.O. Chater, M.N. Chaudhri, A. Cheke, S. Cheng-kui, M. Chilcott, G.L.
Church, S. Cochrane, M. Cohen, N.H.A. Cole, J.B. Comber, P. Condy, M. Conrad,
M.J.E. Coode, T.A. Cope, F. Corbetta, R.A. Countryman, P. Coyne, PJ. Cribb, Jae:
Croft, B.S. Croxall, K. Curry-Lindahl, W. D’Arcy, J.-P. D’Huart, E. D’Souza, A.
xill
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Danin, B. De Winter, R.A. DeFilipps, H. Demirez, G. Dennis, G. Dihoru, M. Dillon,
M.G. Dlamini, C.H. Dodson, D.D. Doone, L.E. Dorr, F. Dowsett-Lemaire, J.
Dransfield, A.M. Dray, R.W. Dwyer, J. Dwyer, E. Einarsson, J.M. Engel, H. Ern, L.
Escobar, R. Faden, P. Fairburn, L. Farrell, J.M. Fay, J. Feilberg, K. Ferguson, A.A.
Ferrar, H. Fink, M.A. Fischer, J.J. Floret, E. Forero, L.L. Forman, B. Fredskild, J.D.
Freeman, F. Friedmann, I. Friis, E. Gabrielian, Z.O. Gbile, C. Geerling, D. Geltman,
A.H. Gentry, A. George, B. Gibbs-Russell, M.G. Gilbert, D.R. Given, L. Godicl, E.E.
Gogina, P. Goldblatt, P. Gélz, L.D. Gomez P., C. Gdmez-Campo, J.-J. de Granville, W.
Greuter, C. Grey-Wilson, V.I. Grubov, C.V.S. Gunatilleke, M.N. el Hadidi, W. Hahn,
A.V. Hall, N. Hallé, O. Hamann, H. Hamburger, L. Hamet-Ahti, A.C. Hamilton, A.
Hansen, W.Z. Hao, R.M. Harley, I. Hedberg, I.C. Hedge, D. Henderson, A.J. Hepburn,
F.N. Hepper, D. Herbst, V.H. Heywood, F.-C. Ho, K. Hgiland, L. Holm-Nielson, S.
Holt, J. Holub, M. Houser, K.-S. Hsu, T.-C. Huang, O. Huber, C.J. Humphries, H.G.
Hundley, D.R. Hunt, J. Hunziker, T. Ingelég, H. Jacques-Félix, P. Jaeger, S.K. Jain, H.
Jasiewicz, C. Jeffrey, J. Jensen, J. Jérémie, R. Johns, M.C. Johnston, J.-C. Jolinon,
L.D. Jornez, M.G. Karrer, K. Kartawinata, D.L. Kelly, H. Keng, R. Kiesling, R. Kiew,
R.A. King, R.B. de Klee, E. Kohler, J. Kornas, R. Kral, B.A. Kuzmanov, R. Kwok, E.
Landolt, E. Lanfranco, P. Lantz, S.E. Lauzon, C.C. Lay, J.-P. Lebrun, T.B. Lee, Y.N.
Lee, J.H. Leigh, R. Letouzey, G.P. Lewis, R.W. Lichvar, J.C. Lindeman, H.P. Linder,
A.H. Liogier, Phan Ke Loc, B. Lojtnant, D. Long, A.H. Lot, J. Lovett, S. Lyster, H.S.
MacKee, D.A. Madulid, W. Marais, F. Markgraf, C. Martin, P.C. Martinelli, B.
Mathew, S.J. Mayo, D. McClintock, B.R. McDonald, R.D. Meikle, J.E. Mendes Ferrdo,
J. Mennema, A.G. Miller, J. Miller, M.J. Mitchell, N. Mohner, D. Money, T. Monod, F.
Monterroso, D.M. Moore, W.H. Moore, Ph. Morat, S.A. Mori, N. Morin, L. Morse, M.
Mufioz Schick, T. Miiller, D.F. Murray, C. Nelson S., F. Németh, E. Ni Lamha, D.H.
Nicolson, H. Niklfeld, H. Nishida, C. Norquist, M. Numata, C. Ochoa, H. Ohba, J.C.
Okafor, R. Olaczek, L. Olivier, P. Olwell, S. Orzell, R.T. Pace, J. Page, C. Pannell, F.H.
Perring, D. Philcox, A. Phillipps, B.R. Phillips, D. Phitos, R.E.G. Pichi-Sermolli, J.
Pickard, S. Pignatti, G.E. Pilz, E. Pingitore, A.R. Pinto da Silva, A. Pinzl, M. Plotkin,
A.C. Podzorski, D.M. Porter, D.A. Powell, R. Press, S. Price, A. Radcliffe-Smith, T.P.
Ramamoorthy, A.L. Rao, W. Rauh, L. Reichling, S.A. Renvoize, S.A. Robertson, W.A.
Rodgers, J.A. Rodrigues de Paiva, M. Romeril, W. Rossi, J.H. Rumely, J. Rzedowski,
M.-H. Sachet, Md. Salar Khan, M.J.S. Sands, C. Sargent, M. Scannell, J. van Scheepen,
C. Scheepers, F.M. Schlegel, M. Schmid, J. Schwegman, J.W. Scott, K. Scriven, M.
Segnestam, K.H. Sheikh, G. Sheppard, T. Shimizu, A. Shmida, S. Siwatibau, A.C.
Smith, W.A. Smith, T. Smitinand, S. Snogerup, J.C. Solomon, G.V. Somner, B.A.
Sorrie, M. Soto, R. Spichiger, J. Steyermark, A.L. Stoffers, W. Strahm, H.E. Strang, A.
Strid, A.M. Studart da Fonseca Vaz, T.F. Stuessy, H.-J. Su, A. Sugden, H. Sukopp, J.
Suominen, J.D. Supthut, D. Sutton, W.R. Sykes, A.L. Takhtajan, E. Tanner, C. Taylor,
Y. Te-Tsun, A.D. Thompson, G. Thor, Dao Van Tien, C.C. Townsend, G. Traxler, G.
Troupin, C. Tydeman, P. Uotila, K. Vollesen, S. Vuokko, M. Wadhwa, F.H.
Wadsworth, S. Wahlberg, M. Walters, S.M. Walters, D.A. Webb, L. Webb, E. Weinert,
O. Weiskirchner, D.W. Weller, T. Wendt, H. van der Werff, M. Werkhoven, A. Whistler,
F. White, T.C. Whitmore, G.E. Wickens, S.R. Wilbur, R.T. Winterbottom, J.R.I.
Wood, K. Woolliams, T. Wraber, A. Wiinschmann, F. Yaltirik, T. Zanoni, E. Zardini, A.
Zimmermann and E.M. van Zinderen Bakker, with apologies to anyone whom we may
have forgotten.
We thank those in IUCN who have helped make this book possible, in particular M.F.
Tillman, Director of the Conservation Monitoring Centre, J.A. McNeely, Director of the
Programme and Policy Division, and O. Hamann, Plants Officer. We thank L. Wright,
Xiv
Acknowledgements
IUCN Publications Officer, for seeing it through production and issuing it, and D.C.
Mackinder, N.P. Phillips and S. Luckcock, in the Computer Services Unit, for help with
the word-processing. His fellow authors would also like to thank Stephen Droop, now a
professional publisher in his own right, for his meticulous work in compiling the
appendices and in proof-reading the whole book.
Naturally we wish to give particular thanks to our financial sponsors, without whom none
of the work could have been done. The preparation of the European accounts was done
under a grant from the U.K. Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), on behalf
of the European Research Councils, co-ordinated through the European Science
Foundation. The CMC receives generous financial support from the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), under their Global Environment Monitoring System
(GEMS), and from the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). In this case WWF have given an
additional grant towards publication that will enable 500 copies of this book to be donated
to botanical institutions and conservation organizations in those countries where funds for
buying books are hard to obtain. We warmly thank our sponsors for all this support.
Outline of the book
In the pages that follow, we provide information about data sources on plants for each
country and island group in the world. Most islands are given a separate account, whatever
their political affiliations, because so often their flora is very different from that of the
parent country. We have only placed the island account next to that of its parent country
where both are close geographically, the island is not oceanic and the floras are similar;
otherwise the islands are placed in the alphabetical sequence. For example, Corsica may be
found after the account for France, but Guadeloupe and Martinique, French
départements, are placed in the main sequence.
We have included most islands other than those inshore ones and those that have little or
no flora. The main omissions are in the Arctic, where there are few, if any, endangered
plants. We have had difficulty in finding the correct names for some of the islands, and
have found it quite impossible to be wholly consistent in geographical names. The
literature on small islands, although fascinating, is obscure and difficult to find and we are
conscious that some of the accounts are far from complete. We would be glad to know of
any errors.
The information in each account is arranged under the following headings, although where
data are lacking or where the accounts are very short, some or all of the headings have
been omitted for the sake of clarity.
Area In square kilometres, mostly taken from The Times Atlas of the World,
Comprehensive Edition (Times Books, London, 1983 version).
Population Taken from the UN World Population Chart, 1984, prepared by the
Population Division of the Department of International, Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations. The figures are estimates, to the nearest thousand, for the middle of the
year. In a few cases, mostly small islands, different sources were used and these are
indicated, with a date wherever possible.
Floristics Here we outline the size of the flora and its affinities, with, where
relevant, notes on areas of high diversity and endemism.
In most cases we have tried to give two figures: the number of species of native vascular
plants, and the number of endemic taxa. The first of these usually comes from the floristic
literature, being either a tally of species recorded or an estimate of species predicted to
occur in the country or island. It has been a pleasant surprise to find estimates and totals
for so many countries. We are unable to present figures for only a handful of countries,
principally Uruguay, the two Yemens, and the two Koreas. We should emphasize that the
figures are not always strictly compatible from one country to another; taxonomic
concepts vary, as does the extent of knowledge. But we do feel that this set of figures,
never drawn together before as far as we can assess, provides a sharp comment on how the
diversity of plants is spread over the Earth.
The second number we have tried to include is the number of endemics; by this we mean
plants strictly confined to the island, island group or country concerned, rather than plants
that are of an endemic nature, i.e. confined to small areas, whether in one country or not.
These figures are usually taken from the IUCN database, as IUCN has been accumulating
information on endemic plants for many years.
Vegetation Our aim has been to provide a succinct account of the principal
vegetation types in each country and to outline the mosaic they form. This is no easy task,
Xvi
Outline of the book
even for professional phytosociologists, and we have invariably found this the most
difficult section to write. As botanists, with mostly a taxonomic and ecological rather than
a phytosociological training, we have learned greatly from the process but are very aware
of the deficiencies in what we have written. We hope, nevertheless, that the accounts will
be of some use in providing a birds-eye picture of the natural vegetation that remains; the
tremendous help that we have had from the numerous botanists who have reviewed the
accounts should ensure, too, that they are not wholly inaccurate.
In writing these sections, we have deliberately not followed any one system of classifying
vegetation, and have tried to follow a structural rather than a phytosociological approach.
As White (1983) says, ‘“‘The remark made long ago by Richards, Tansley and Watt (1939,
1940) in discussing Burtt Davy’s (1938) classification of tropical woody vegetation, namely
that existing knowledge is inadequate for the construction of a world-wide natural
classification, still remains true.’’ We have also tried to avoid the more baffling and
complex terms used by some vegetation scientists.
The sections vary greatly from region to region, those for Europe, predominantly a man-
made landscape, being the most difficult. For Africa, we have had the benefit of F.
White’s masterpiece on the vegetation - the AETFAT vegetation map and descriptive
memoir (White, 1983). We have followed this closely and as a result the accounts of the
vegetation for Africa are better, shorter and more consistent than those for other regions.
Where possible, especially in tropical forest countries, we have added figures on the extent
of vegetation remaining, and of the rate of loss, although in no sense do we provide more
than a brief introduction to the literature. Here, too, difficulties intrude for those who
seek to summarize. We have, in fact, tended to quote from two very eminent but very
different, indeed often contradictory, accounts. The first is the series of books by
FAO/UNEP under the overall title Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project,
specifically Forest Resources of Tropical Africa, of Tropical Asia and of Tropical America
(the latter in Spanish). These massive tomes were compiled by FAO from figures requested
from governments. The second source is Norman Myers’ Conversion of Tropical Moist
Forests (Myers, 1980), a report prepared for the U.S. National Research Council and
published by the National Academy of Sciences. As Myers himself (1984) points out, the
discrepancy lies with the two sets of criteria used. He looked at significant conversion of
primary forests, that is, destruction plus degradation, whereas the FAO/UNEP study
focused instead on outright elimination of forests, that is, destruction alone. From the
point of view of biological values, the Myers figures are therefore likely to be the more
useful, because it is well known that modification of tropical forests tends to cause loss of
plant diversity. When these differences are taken into account, Myers (1984) claimed that
the figures for overall loss of tropical forests were quite similar: a deforestation rate in
1980 of 76,000 sq. km per year according to the FAO/UNEP study, and a figure for
outright elimination from the Myers study of 92,000 sq. km per year. In both cases one
should emphasize that the largest countries with tropical forest are often the least well
documented so that the overall estimates are figures to be treated with caution.
Checklists and Floras This section is included to provide a taxonomic basis for
the sections that follow on threatened species. The aim is to cite those works that
conservationists would use, so we take a selective view of the botanical literature. Where a
comprehensive Flora has just been completed, we have added none of the older works
since these would only be required by the taxonomic specialist. But where a Flora has not
been written, or is still incomplete, we have included those older works that will be needed
to cover the gaps. Often, where modern Floras are still only just beginning, as in many
South American countries, we have included references to monographs for the larger
| XVii
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
individual families. We have also included botanical bibliographies whenever we could
find them. In European countries, and some others, we have included plant atlases and
national botanical journals.
We should emphasize just how selective we have been, especially for countries with an
extensive botanical literature. The bibliography of Mexican botany, for example, runs to
1015 pages (Langman, 1964). The second edition of Taxonomic Literature, TL2, in seven
massive volumes, will list 15-16,000 titles, mostly published before 1939 and will not be
complete, covering just the important works (M.R. Crosby and P.H. Raven, pers.
comm.).
While in the final stages of producing this book, D.G. Frodin’s Guide to Standard Floras
of the World was published. This gives very detailed accounts of all the Floras published
up to 1980, country by country, and is the result of many years of careful research. The
Floras section of our book is fundamentally different as we list only selected works.
Nevertheless, quick perusal of Frodin showed a high degree of consistency between the
accounts. In only a few cases have we taken the liberty of adding a book or paper from
Frodin’s accounts and all these instances are cited (e.g. ‘‘from Frodin’’). We salute Dr
Frodin’s magnum opus and commend it for those who require a more detailed and
complete account.
Field-guides Again our choice is selective, especially for those countries like
Britain and the United States where very many field-guides have been published over the
years. In numerous other countries, however, there is not even a simple guide to the
common species.
Information on Threatened Plants This is the core of the book. We have tried to
include all lists of threatened plants and Plant Red Data Books, but have not listed papers
on one or two threatened species only, unless they give valuable background on threatened
species in the area concerned. Some of the major works have been reviewed in the
Threatened Plants Newsletter, issued by the Threatened Plants Unit about twice a year and
sent to those who contribute data to the CMC; these reviews are mentioned where they
provide a useful summary of a work or give new information.
News of national databases on threatened species are also given, but this is a recent
development in most countries. The maps (see below) summarize the coverage of Red Data
Books for countries around the world and the conclusions from this are outlined in the
following section.
Where known, we give figures for the number of species (and in some cases infraspecific or
lower taxa) falling into each of the IUCN Red Data Book Categories, used as a measure of
the degree of threat to wild populations of individual taxa. These categories are defined at
the end of the introductory section and outlined with examples in a booklet available from
the Threatened Plants Unit at Kew. Most of the figures are taken from the CMC database
on plants. In some instances, we quote the number of plants in The JUCN Plant Red Data
Book (Lucas and Synge, 1978), especially where these are the only readily available
examples of threatened species from a particular country. It is important to remember,
however, that The IUCN Plant Red Data Book contains only examples, chosen to show
the types of threats, habitats and areas affected. The aim was to find a few examples for
each country, so the accounts are not representative of the places where the most
extinctions are happening.
Laws Protecting Plants This section covers legislation specifically to protect
plants. It includes details of the type of protection offered and the taxa covered. With the
XVlii
Outline of the book
exception of Europe, information on plants protected by law is still rudimentary; the very
extensive database of the IUCN Environmental Law Centre in Bonn, West Germany,
covers the individual species of fauna that receive legal protection, but not yet flora. The
great size and complexity of that database, which depends on a standard list of animals, at
least vertebrates, show how difficult it will be to compile similar records for plants.
Details on laws relating to protected area legislation are not given; for this the reader
should consult the IUCN Directories of Protected Areas, of which the volume for the
Neotropics is available (IUCN, 1982). Volumes for Africa, Asia and Oceania are in
advanced stages of preparation.
Voluntary Organizations Here are listed those non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), sometimes called citizen groups, that include plant conservation and botany in
their remit. Many, but not all, are members of IUCN.
Botanic Gardens This section was included to reflect the very great importance
that IUCN attaches to the role that Botanic Gardens can play in conservation. In the
accounts of some countries, for reasons of space, only gardens subscribing to IUCN’s
Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body are included. More details of the
Botanic Gardens of the world may be found in the International Directory of Botanical
Gardens IV (4th Edition), compiled under the aegis of the International Association of
Botanical Gardens (IABG) (Henderson, 1983). A survey of botanic gardens, undertaken
by V.H. Heywood and P.S. Ashton for the preparation of an IUCN Botanic Gardens
Conservation Strategy, has greatly increased the number of Botanic Gardens on which
recent data is available; there are now over 1300 institutions recorded in the IUCN
database as Botanic Gardens although not all may qualify in the scientific sense.
Useful Addresses These include, for example, the main conservation agency in
the country and the CITES management and scientific authorities. For the most part,
herbaria are not included, being very effectively covered by the very meticulous and
accurate Index Herbariorum (Holmgren, Keuken and Schofield, 1981), which describes
about 1400 herbaria.
Additional References This is a very selective section, including additional
references cited in the text, as well as further books and articles on conservation and
botany in the country concerned that are especially useful. We have made a special effort
to include references to national vegetation maps here.
After the country and island accounts, we provide three appendices. The first gives the
references that occur so often they are not repeated in full on each country or island
account. The second provides a geographical index to the references in Appendix 1, with
an indication of subject matter. It may be helpful in finding references for a region rather
than for a country. The third is a table showing which countries have ratified or acceded to
the three global conservation conventions that relate to plants - the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the
Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (The
World Heritage Convention), and the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, usually known as the Ramsar Convention.
The final part of the book is an index of countries, islands and island groups mentioned in
the data sheets, and important old or alternative names (even if these are not mentioned in
the text) given as synonyms, followed by the current name. The page number given is that
at the beginning of the relevant data sheet, rather than the page number of every
occurrence. Geographical entities such as mountains, rivers or regions are not included in
the index.
xix
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Xxi
Plants in Danger: What we
know so far
There is now a very substantial amount of knowledge on threatened plants. It is mostly
very recent: for example, by 1970, only Belgium had produced a threatened plant list, only
Ronald Melville was cataloguing threatened plants globally, and there was only a
scattering of papers on plant conservation. Today, almost all the countries of the
‘‘North’’, as defined by the Brandt Report and so including Australia, New Zealand and
South Africa, have produced Red Data Books listing their threatened plants. Several
countries of the ‘‘South’’, notably India, have produced exemplary lists too, and are
following them up with programmes to conserve the plants they have listed as threatened.
The coverage of Red Data Books is shown in Map No. 1. Some figures for numbers of
threatened species in the regions and countries of the ‘‘North’’ are also given in Table 1.
Table 1 Selected countries or regions of the ‘‘North’’ with Red Data Books
Country/Region Species Rare & threatened Extinct Endangered
taxa taxa taxa
Australia 25,000 1716 117 215
Europe! 11,300 1927 20 117
New Zealand 2000 186 4 42
South Africa 23,000 2122 39 107
U.S.S.R. 21,100 653 ce 20 c. 160
U.S.A.’ 20,000 2050 90 ?
Sources: Country accounts and CMC database
1. Excludes European U.S.S.R, Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira
2. Continental U.S.A.
In Europe, for example, all but five countries have produced Red Data Books or
threatened plant lists, and those five, with the exception of Italy and Albania, are likely to
produce reports soon. There is also a regional list for Europe (Threatened Plants Unit,
IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1983), which covers only species rare or
threatened on a European scale, and a rather incomplete list for the neighbouring region of
North Africa and the Middle East (IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat,
1980). In the United States, there is a mass of lists and reports covering both the nation and
individual states: the situation is complex and rather untypical of other countries, but the
profligacy of independent initiatives and activities gives perhaps a glimpse of how the data
may develop elsewhere in future. The data for the U.S.S.R. are also very complex, with a
plethora of literature.
In North America, 10-11% of the taxa have been listed as rare or threatened. The figure is
rather higher in Europe, probably because of the combination of extensive threats to
vegetation in the northern, industrialized countries, and the high degree of plant endemism
in the southern Mediterranean countries. In northern European countries, the number of
world-threatened species tends to be low; this is a reflection of the poverty of the flora,
mostly consisting of widespread species that have invaded since the last Ice Age. The lists
of nationally threatened species, however, tend to be several times greater, typically of 200
taxa or more.
XXli
Plants in Danger: What we know so far.
For the Southern Hemisphere, there is a list for South Africa (Hall et a/., 1980), although
this is heavily weighted in favour of the Cape. A good list is available for Australia, now in
its third version, though it is known to be incomplete for the fast disappearing Queensland
rain forests and for the extraordinarily diverse flora of Western Australia. Botanists
estimate that as many as 7000 plant species await discovery in Australia, mainly in the
western region. In temperate Latin America, there is a list for Chile, but not yet for
Argentina.
Of all countries, the problem of threatened plants has perhaps been best documented in
New Zealand. First to appear, in 1976, was a register - or list - of 314 taxa under
consideration for threatened status (Given, 1976). Then, in 1976-1978, sets of loose-leaf
sheets were issued; each sheet covered an individual species, with emphasis on the exact
localities and populations in each locality. This was not a public document, but was
designed to provide the practising conservationist with the information needed on the most
critically threatened plants. This was followed by a popular, illustrated book on
conservation of the New Zealand flora (Given, 1981a), an official Red Data Book covering
plants and animals (Williams and Given, 1981), and a paper describing the whole
documentation process (Given, 1981b).
Within these regions, the highest percentages of rare and threatened species are from those
areas with a mediterranean climate - the Mediterranean basin countries themselves,
Western Australia, the Cape of South Africa and California. Raven (1976) estimates that
these regions contain at least 25,000 plant species; a high percentage of them, maybe as
many as half, are narrow endemics, and it is these plants, mostly in the IUCN Rare or
Endangered categories, that dominate the threatened plant lists for U.S.A., Europe,
Australia and South Africa. To give two examples, Californian endemics account for 669
of the 2050 threatened species in the U.S. and, according to Hall et al. (1984), the Cape
Floristic Kingdom contains 1621 threatened plants, including 36 Extinct, 98 Endangered
and 137 Vulnerable.
In addition, threatened plant lists and Plant Red Data Books have been prepared for many
islands. For example, the Canary Islands are well covered by the list for Spain (Barreno et
al., 1984), a Red Data Book for Mauritius, sponsored by IUCN/WWF, is in preparation
and several lists have been prepared for the species-rich islands of Hawaii. Emphasis,
however, has been more on listing the endemics and assigning threatened categories to
them rather than preparing comprehensive Red Data Books. Nevertheless these lists show
convincingly the very high degree of species endangerment on islands, especially on
tropical oceanic islands.
Most important for conservation of biological diversity are those islands with large
endemic floras (endemic here means taxa confined to the island concerned). Those with
over 1000 endemics are listed in Table 2. They are all very ancient land masses, unlike most
oceanic islands which are of more recent geological origin. These islands contain
remarkable floras that are very distinct, often isolated biologically and relicts of floras no
longer seen today. This is demonstrated by the high degree of endemism among genera and
even families. In all of them the vegetation is acutely threatened, but only for Cuba is there
a comprehensive assessment of which species are at risk. A more detailed survey and
assessment of the conservation status of these floras is an urgent world priority. For Cuba,
Borhidi and Mujiz (1983) list 959 species as threatened or extinct, 832 of them endemics.
For the Dominican Republic there is a partial list of 133 species (Jiménez, 1978) as well as
extensive unpublished material.
|
Xxiii
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XXiV
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XXV1i
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Table 2 Oceanic islands with over 1000 endemic plant species
Country Size of flora Endemics
Madagascar 10,000-12,000 spp. c. 80%
Cuba 6000-7000 spp. 3000-4000
Hispaniola? 5000 spp. 1800
New Caledonia 3250 spp. 2474
1. Excludes Australia, New Zealand, Borneo, New Guinea.
2. Hispaniola comprises the nations of Haiti and Dominican Republic.
There are, of course, many other islands with rich floras, although none except the four
listed above have over 1000 endemics. Here, paradoxically, data are usually more
complete. Some examples are given in Table 3, using the IUCN Red Data Book categories
to define the degree of threat. The islands least well documented are in the Caribbean,
especially the Lesser Antillean chain, where a new Flora is in preparation (Howard,
1974- ).
Table 3 Endemic vascular plant taxa from selected oceanic islands
50-1000 endemics, over 75% of the flora assigned to categories
Ex E Vv Ra «I K nt Total Rare or
threatened
Azores 1 - Ss Sie | lil 14 55 30 (55%)
Canary Islands ial 26s 109 Se 132m 26. 160 569 383 (67%)
Galapagos - OF o> Sd eis Pe. vera lt) 229 150 (66%)
Juan Fernandez i S22 aa 17 6 118 95 (81%)
Lord Howe Island - 2 Oe 585-3 - 2 75 73 (97%)
Madeira Sue sO re Sole 22) 28 131 86 (66%)
Mauritius 19") 4265p E35) §39).14 169% 39 280 172 (61%)
Seychelles eee eso 15 2) AT - 90 73 (81%)
Socotra 1 84 eel 29 ie :)i 215 132 (61%)
Similar data exist for Puerto Rico (234 endemics) but are not yet converted to IUCN criteria. Figures
for Seychelles are for the Granitic Islands only, and so exclude Aldabra.
The damage to the vegetation of smaller islands often gives an indication of what might
happen to larger areas in future. In many cases destruction started centuries ago, often
with the introduction of goats (in case of shipwreck). On the British dependency of St
Helena, destruction started with the introduction of goats in 1513, which within 75 years
had formed herds which stretched for nearly 2 km and devastated the flora before a
botanist could even visit the island. Some examples of devastated floras are given in
Table 4.
XXViii
Plants in Danger: What we know so far.
Table 4 Small oceanic islands with devastated floras
Ex E Vv R I K nt Total Rare or
threatened
Ascension Island 1 5 - 4 = 1 - 11 10 (91%)
Bermuda 3 4 6 = ? l ? 14
Norfolk Island 5 Hey e229 eral | 2 - 48 46 (96%)
Rodrigues LON 20 8 8 - - 2 48 46 (96%)
St Helena Vine 23 = alan 2 ~ 49 47 (96%)
A number of tropical countries have prepared or are preparing threatened plant lists,
despite the difficulties. Among the most prominent are:
India Several lists prepared, covering in total c. 900 threatened
species.
Nepal National Plant Red Data Book, funded by WWF-US.
Pakistan Identification of threatened plants is part of the WWF-
Pakistan Plants Programme.
Peninsular Malaysia Database on threatened plants being created by the
Malayan Nature Society.
The programme in India is one of the most comprehensive, with a full-time team stationed
around the country, and is described in the country account. In China, a basic list of 354
threatened plants has been prepared and a Red Data Book covering their status is in
preparation, the English translation being due in 1985. Another good example is Egypt,
where a threatened plant list is being prepared by the National Herbarium. There are lists
of various kinds for El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Kenya, South Korea,
Peninsular Malaysia, Mexico, Tanzania and Viet Nam, and IUCN hold additional data for
countries including Ivory Coast, Malawi, Mozambique and Senegal.
In middle America (Mexico to Panama), an IUCN project has prepared a threatened plant
list for the region, using where possible the floristic accounts prepared for the forthcoming
Flora Mesoamericana. Out of many thousands of species screened, including 7622 single
country endemics, 1620 have been found to be rare or threatened. This is undoubtedly a
major under-estimate; because of the lack of botanical knowledge, it was not possible to
assign categories to 5115 of the 7622 single-country endemics.
There is, then, a large and rapidly expanding literature of Red Data Books and national
threatened plant lists but like much conservation information, it is mostly ‘grey literature’,
that is reports, often a typescript, produced in low numbers and known only to a handful
of people. Such reports are usually available on request but cannot be said to be published.
To make all these data more accessible and to enable comparisons to be made from
country to country, the Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN’s Conservation Monitoring
Centre, based at Kew, has made a database drawing upon much of the information
contained in the national Red Data Books and threatened plant lists. At present, this is
principally a matrix of the name of the plant, its distribution by countries and the IUCN
Red Data Book category for its degree of threat, applied at country and at world level,
where known. A major development of the database is planned for 1986-7. This will
enable the database to include plant distributions by localities, with presence in named
Ck areas, synonyms, life-form, bibliographic references and data sources. It will
include continued research on effective coding schemes for threats and for habitats.
XXiX
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XXXIli
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
So far the database contains records on 34,266 plant taxa, 15,870 of which are threatened;
these comprise 42,569 plant-area records (18 September 1985). Detailed data-sheets,
comprising one or more sheets of text, are held on c. 300 of the threatened plants,
including those published as The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (Lucas and Synge, 1978).
There are still a number of threatened plant lists not incorporated into the database. It is
reasonable to assume, therefore, that the total number of known threatened plants will rise
to perhaps as high as 20,000 taxa within the coming months as these data are incorporated.
Even so, this will barely cover many tropical countries, especially those where rain forest is
the dominant vegetation. For some time IUCN’s working estimate of the number of
threatened plants has been 25,000-30,000; the terminology has, however, been
unsatisfactory, as it is not possible to predict which species will be lost and when; the
IUCN/WWFEF Plant Advisory Group in 1985 estimated that as many as 60,000 plant species
could become extinct by 2050 if present trends continue - the greatest loss of plant species
that has ever occurred during a short period of time. This estimate is entirely compatible
with the figures outlined above.
Table 5 Families with most threatened species in the IUCN database
Name of Family No. Threatened Species’ No. Species?
Compositae 1430 c. 25,000
Leguminosae 941 17,000
Orchidaceae 712 c. 18,000
Palmae 546 c. 2780
Rubiaceae 524 c. 7000
Liliaceae 495 c. 3500
Euphorbiaceae 487 Over 5000
Labiatae 477 c. 3000
Gramineae 460 c. 9000
Cruciferae 443 c. 3000
1. Source: IUCN database, 18 September 1985;
2. Source: Heywood (1978).
XXXIV
Constraints to the
identification of threatened
species
The concept of a species threatened with extinction is a simple one, yet, as the previous
section shows, national threatened plant lists and Red Data Books so far cover only part of
the world. Whereas most countries of the ‘‘North’’, with predominantly temperate
vegetation, are well covered, there are few Red Data Books for the countries of the
‘‘South’’, where the vegetation is mostly tropical.
Yet as Map No. 3 shows, most of the world’s plants grow in the tropics. Roughly two-
thirds of the world’s flora is tropical, half of it in Latin America and half shared between
Africa and Asia. Comparison of the maps shows a sharp discrepancy between these
regions with Red Data Books and those regions with most plants.
Although hardly surprising, this is obviously a matter of great concern. The richer the
flora, obviously the more difficult it is to identify which species are threatened as the
information on each species tends to be less. Indeed, for much of the world, the
information on each species is so small that it is not possible to assess chances of survival at
all. Numerous tropical plants are only known from a handful of herbarium specimens,
often collected many years ago and frequently poorly documented. It is not known
whether the plant is common, even dominant, over a large area, or extremely rare.
This problem is made more difficult by the distribution patterns of many tropical plants.
The rare species in regions of mediterranean climate and on islands tend to be endemics,
plants only known from one small place. Here the threat to a site can be equated to the
threat to a species. Destroy the vegetation on the site and the species will disappear. But in
the tropics, especially in tropical rain forests, plant species tend to have very scattered
distributions. One small piece of forest may contain hundreds of different tree species,
each one with only a few individuals per square kilometre. So the plants tend to be thinly
scattered over a very extensive range. If part of the forest is to be cut down, it is usually not
possible to say which species will become extinct and which will not. No one knows the
critical point when species start to be lost.
But perhaps most serious of all is the great imbalance in resources for botanical research
between the temperate and tropical regions. The flora of Britain has barely more species
than the 1560 hectare island of Barro Colorado in the Panama Canal, whose luxuriant
forest, although secondary, contains 1369 species (Croat, 1978). Britain, however, is
probably the best botanized country in the world. Every plant is plotted on a 10 km square
grid and thousands of amateurs regularly contribute plant records to the journals. There
are probably more botanists competent on the British flora than species for them to
identify! The country is covered by a voluminous literature with Floras for each county as
well as for the nation itself. Yet in countries like Bolivia (15-18,000 species) and Colombia
(estimated 45,000 species), a handful of botanists grapple with floras that are largely
unknown. No expert can identify more than a small fraction of a tropical forest flora, at
least without resource to an herbarium. The sad truth is that most botanists live and work
in countries far away from most of the world’s plants.
Also, of course, there are thousands, possibly tens of thousands, of plant species not yet
discovered, the greatest proportion being from Latin America. This is from a generally
accepted world total of around 250,000 species of vascular plants.
XXXV
Conclusions for the future
There is, then, plenty of information on which plants are threatened. But most of the
information is on the countries with least flora. There is very little information on plant
conservation needs for those parts of the world where plant diversity is greatest and where
threats to plant life may be most acute. Nor has specific action to save plants been
particularly widespread or effective.
The IUCN/WWE Plant Advisory Group, meeting at Missouri Botanical Garden in
December 1984, expressed the need for plant conservation in this way:
‘‘Plants are a primary resource of fundamental importance for human life. Rapid
population growth, together with the excessive and increasing demands that are placed
on the world’s resources by our societies, are threatening to destroy a major portion of
our common heritage of plants. This threat is especially evident in the tropics and
subtropics, where at least two-thirds of the plants of the world occur, and where the
process of deforestation is proceeding at an alarming rate. Widespread poverty,
famine, and political instability, for example in Africa, are manifestations of the same
processes that are driving plants to extinction and, by doing so, seriously limiting our
future options for developing sustainable relationships between man and his living
resources.
All human beings depend upon plants, directly or indirectly, for their lives, as do most
other forms of life: at least four million different kinds of organisms depend on about
250,000 kinds of plants. But unless we immediately begin to take drastic and innovative
measures to preserve them, it is likely that tens of thousands of plant species will
disappear forever during our lives or those of our children. Their loss would amount to
a fundamental and permanent change in the character of life on Earth, a life whose
wealth is characterized by great diversity.
Some 20 plants provide more than 85% of our food and only a few hundred species are
cultivated widely. Most plant species have never been examined to see if they might
have properties that would make them useful as food or for other purposes in our
modern industrial age, and thousands of species have not even been given a name or
described scientifically.’’
So, with a problem of such magnitude, what should be done? IUCN’s response to such
questions is the World Conservation Strategy, which provides a conceptual basis linking
conservation with development. The task now is to work out precisely how the Strategy
can be implemented. Applying the principles of the World Conservation Strategy to the
problems of plant conservation:
1. We need more botanists! M.R. Crosby and P.H. Raven (pers. comm., 1985)
estimate that there are about 3000 plant taxonomists in the world today. They estimate
that six times more plant taxonomists are needed to study the world’s flora to an adequate
extent before it is too late.
This is a target to impress upon science research councils and other funding agencies. It is
equally important to promote the correction of the imbalance between where the plants
grow and where the botanists live. We should surely do all we can to encourage young
botanists starting on their careers to work on tropical plants. The potential for discovering
useful new plants is greater in the tropics than elsewhere, but many tropical plants are
being lost before they are properly understood.
XXXVI
Conclusions for the future
The goal should be to complete surveys of plant diversity and distribution in those areas,
predominantly tropical, where they are lacking. The need is most acute in tropical Latin
America, where there are an estimated 90,000 plant species, far more than for any other
region on Earth; inventories have been prepared for only a few countries, e.g. Guatemala
and Panama, and those are known to be far from complete. Without the basic knowledge
of plant distributions, it is impossible to plan for the conservation of plant diversity.
Inventories are the cornerstone of plant conservation.
2. We need more Red Data Books! This book shows that preparing Red Data
Books is possible for many parts of the world. Yet there are still many gaps in the
coverage.
Looking at the completed accounts, it is clearly not possible to make a quantitative
assessment of priorities around the world. The data are too diffuse and the local
knowledge of floras too variable for that. Yet it may be useful to have a more subjective
assessment. On the basis of the evidence presented, and from our knowledge of compiling
a Red Data Book, we would suggest that national plant Red Data Books are feasible and
necessary in the following countries, where they should be treated as priorities:
Country Approx. No. Species
Argentina 9000
Turkey 8000
Italy 5000
Yugoslavia 4800
Japan 4000
Morocco 3600
Saudi Arabia 3500
Canada 3200
Portugal 2500
Israel 2300
Jordan 2200
Cyprus 2000
Looking at the islands, we can be more objective. Clearly priority should be given to those
islands with over 1000 endemics - Madagascar, Cuba, Hispaniola and New Caledonia, as
outlined in Table 2. In each case the floras are not well known and far more work is
urgently needed. The next priority is those oceanic islands whose floras have not been
assessed for threatened species; all those with over 50 endemics are listed below:
XXXVIi
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Island No. endemic taxa
Jamaica c. 910
Taiwan c. 900!
Sri Lanka c. 900 '
Fiji c. 700
Caroline Islands 293 ?
Trinidad and Tobago PASS
Ogasawara-Gunto ey baie
Réunion C150}
Vanuatu c. 150
Tubuai 140 or less
Comoro Islands 136 4
Bahamas 121!
Sao Tomé 108
Marquesas Islands 103 !
Samoa ? 100 or more ?
Cape Verde 92
Mariana Islands 81?
Notes: 1. Some partial assessments of threatened species - see country accounts for details
2. Omits monocotyledons
3. Covered as American Samoa and Western Samoa.
4. From a checklist published in 1917.
The book shows that listing threatened plants is best done by a major botanical institution
in each country, rather than by any international centre. This policy ensures botanical
accuracy and provides the marriage of literature and herbarium groundwork with field
knowledge. Work in the library and herbarium may show which species are very restricted
in range or confined to vulnerable habitats, but only field knowledge, preferably
accumulated over many years, can say which of them are threatened. This policy also helps
to build a political and scientific climate within the country to go beyond the data-
gathering and design a conservation programme to save the plants so listed.
The aim of a Red Data Book is simple: to provide such data as are required to help create a
situation where action may be taken to prevent the plants from becoming extinct. IUCN
believes that each country should develop its own approach and produce a book in its own
style yet counsels two standards that will promote international collaboration and allow
comparisons to be made from one country to another. The first is that countries use the
IUCN Red Data Book categories as a measure of the degree of threat to individual taxa.
Countries should by all means use other coded means of assessment of their own devising,
numerical or subjective, but should also apply the IUCN categories to the species listed.
The categories have been fixed for many years and used in virtually all the Red Data Books
and lists that have appeared in recent years - the main exception is the United States, where
categories of similar nomenclature but different meaning are used, following terminology
in the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973.
The second standard is precision over the full range of the plants listed, in particular
whether each is confined to the area covered by the Red Data Book or not. If it is, clearly it
will be threatened on a world scale and should receive priority over species common in
other countries. If the species does occur outside the country, it is very useful to give some
indication, however brief, of its full range - is it a pantropical weed, for example, or does
XXXViii
Conclusions for the Future
it just extend over the border into a neighbouring country where it may be equally
threatened?
It may also be possible for Red Data Books to include information on the sites where most
plants could be saved. This is an especially useful approach, particularly where data are
lacking on individual species. Indeed, the best way to save most tropical plants is to
preserve relatively large areas of intact vegetation, and it is certainly easier to assess where
these sites should be rather than to identify threatened species. Using this approach, IUCN
is preparing a Plant Sites Red Data Book; this will contain accounts of about 150 botanical
sites indicative of those in greatest need of protection around the world, and where plant
species diversity and/or endemism is particularly high. It is not intended to be a
comprehensive account of all sites in danger, but rather an indication of those sites where
most plants could be saved. Country accounts of savable plant sites will be even more
useful.
3. We need more detailed monitoring! Identifying a species as threatened is only
the very first step in its conservation. There are many other elements of information that
are needed. The most critical of these are data on precisely where the plant occurs - its
present localities and data on population biology - how many plants occur at each locality,
what are the bottlenecks in the life-cycle which are critical to expansion of the population,
and so on. The techniques to do this are fairly sophisticated, following for the most part
J.L. Harper’s work on population biology (Harper, 1977). Good examples of such studies
are few, some being given in a conference partly devoted to this theme on the biological
aspects of rare plant conservation (Synge, 1981); this shows rather clearly that the
techniques available are as diverse as the number of experimenters!
Henefin and colleagues (1981) have designed guidelines for data-gatherers on the
preparation of status reports on rare or endangered plant species. These were designed for
the requirements of the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973. Their very structured
approach provides a lengthy and useful checklist of factors to consider.
Equally important as studies on individual threatened species are studies on the plant
communities in which the species occur, especially on the ecology of the vegetation. An
understanding of succession, for example, can be critical in ensuring the survival of
individual plant populations. Experience shows how important such knowledge can be
before rescue attempts are undertaken. In a number of cases, the fate of the plant has been
harmed by well-meaning but incorrect conservation action. This is especially true for
small, very vulnerable sites, where mistakes can be fatal. A good example is the story of
Ranunculus ophioglossifolius in Britain, outlined by Frost (1981). Early efforts to
conserve the principal population, confined to a tiny site of 1/12 acre, eliminated the
plants altogether! The tragedy is that for those regions where most plants are threatened,
conservation of individual plants has never been attempted, so there are no stories of
success or failure to recount. This is all the more serious because of the large number of
economic species in the tropics.
Far more knowledge is still needed on the basic management of protected areas, especially
in the tropics, to ensure that the species they contain will survive in future centuries. To
our knowledge, there has also been little systematic assessment of which rare and
threatened species are in existing protected areas. IUCN is keen to encourage inventories
of protected areas as a basic first step in assessing what is protected so far. Few park
managers have a list of the plants in the sites they manage and those lists that do exist are
often difficult to obtain and unreliable. The IUCN/WWF Plant Advisory Group
recommended surveys of the plants in Unesco Biosphere Reserves as a first step and as a
XXXIX
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
way of uniting the biological and conservation communities. This is being taken up by
Unesco.
Indeed, in the coming decades, as habitats continue to decline, the emphasis may move
away from identifying threatened species towards cataloguing the occurrence of all species
in protected areas. One can then ask the question, ‘‘Which species are not protected at
all?’’, and give priority to them. This is a much less subjective approach. The difficulties,
however, are formidable: to derive the list of species not protected, one needs first of all an
agreed list or database of plants of the region concerned, followed by lists of species
occurring in protected areas. The necessary agreement in taxonomy is still far off, but
modern computer technology should act as a spur for regional and specialist plant
databases, linked together in a network.
In contrast, the data are far better on which threatened species are conserved ex situ in
Botanic Gardens, although it is generally accepted that this approach is a second-best
solution and is unlikely to succeed for most tropical plants. IUCN’s Botanic Gardens
Conservation Co-ordinating Body links together about 250 Botanic Gardens into a world
network for plant conservation. Surveys have shown that c. 4400 of the c. 16,000 known
threatened species are recorded in cultivation. It is likely that this total will expand rapidly,
double even, as exchange of electronic media becomes possible between Botanic Gardens
and IUCN; the computerization of individual gardens record schemes and a limited
measure of standardization, with the provision of an International Transfer Format, is the
subject of an IUCN project this year.
4. We need more conservation action! Despite the impressive amount of
information catalogued in this book, action to save plants in danger is scattered, often
small in scale and rarely effective. Indeed, it is hard to find more than a handful of
examples where a species, once threatened, has been rescued and is now conserved and safe
for the future.
Despite this rather depressing fact, it would appear that success is possible in the
predominantly temperate countries such as those of Europe and North America. Here, no
more species should be lost. As Lucas and Synge (1978) outline, relatively few of the listed
species are Endangered and most are confined to very small areas which can usually be
protected without great difficulty. Indeed, relatively small protected areas may be
adequate. Botanic Gardens, moreover, can not only cultivate the plants but also
reintroduce them, maintain their habitats and even own and manage reserves for them.
Once the individual facts on threats, habitats, sites and populations are known, successful
conservation of most plant species is likely to prove far less difficult and costly than that of
animals. The requirement is on the one hand for the political will to act and on the other
for sufficient, energetic and skilful manpower to take protective action for the numerous
species involved.
In much of the tropics, however, one has to recognize, and regretfully accept, that species
losses are now virtually inevitable. The best answer is to build a network of protected areas
— national parks and nature reserves - covering representative samples of the best habitat
types. Clearly the priority is to find those areas with the most diversity and to protect
them. Setting up one large tropical forest reserve can save hundreds if not thousands of
species.
Sometimes a single species can act as a symbol and rallying point for a whole programme
of habitat conservation. Project Tiger, an initiative of the Indian Government supported
by the World Wildlife Fund, led not only to an increase in tigers from about 1800 to 3000,
xl
Conclusions for the Future
but, even more important, to a revitalizing of India’s protected areas network, with
benefits to the numerous plants and animals with which the tiger shared its habitat.
Yet, obviously, the creation of protected areas is principally a means of buying time.
Protected areas cannot be effective in the middle of an over-populated and poverty-striken
environment; the pressures and temptations are too great when protected areas become
lush but forbidden pockets of vegetation surrounded by degraded land.
To counter this possibility, managers of protected areas are changing their tactics. In
developing countries, meeting human needs for food, health and shelter has to be the
primary goal. Rather than ‘‘set land aside’’, protected area managers want to protect it
from gross outside disturbance so that the benefits continue to radiate out into the
surrounding countryside; these include surplus animals for food and a continual supply of
fresh water in the streams, to give two examples. A vital concept is the buffer zone, a
broad and possibly undefined area between the park and the surrounding countryside. The
buffer zone can continue to be used in traditional and sustainable ways, e.g. for gathering
firewood and wild fruit, for grazing limited numbers of cattle and for gathering medicinal
herbs.
Since the United States declared Yellowstone National Park in 1872, parks have been
created all over the world. In the decade between 1972 and 1982, major protected areas,
excluding the smallest, rose from 212 million hectares to around 386 million hectares - an
impressive 55 percent increase. Yet this covers only a small proportion of the Earth’s
surface, at a time when vegetation is being destroyed faster than ever before. It is a race
against time; most areas will have to be saved before the 1990s. The timescale for global
conservation is desperately short.
The other main remedy, just as important, is to find better means of using land so that
wild plants continue to grow there and the land remains productive. New ways to grow
sustainable crops in tropical rain forest environments and to prevent desertification will
not only contribute greatly to sustainable development but will save wild plants as well. To
help achieve this, botanists should be included in land-use planning teams, particularly in
tropical regions where the available knowledge is especially limited. Land-use specialists
such as agronomists and foresters should be included in conservation-orientated
discussions as a matter of routine. Conservationists must also work more actively with
agriculturists and foresters, bearing in mind that conservation and sustainable
development can succeed properly only if they go hand in hand. The subject is far too
broad to go into here but is vital for the future of the plant kingdom.
5. We need more education and training! None of the activities outlined above
will happen unless there is the trained and skilled manpower to implement them. Indeed an
investment in training and institution-building can often be the most productive of all.
There is a severe shortage of well-trained scientists and technicians with conservation
skills, especially in the tropics. Specifically, the proper management of germplasm reserves
differs greatly from park management in general, and is seldom based on adequate
information.
To address this important problem, the [UCN/WWF Plant Advisory Group
recommiended that increased efforts should be made to provide training at all levels, to
incorporate conservation principles as a normal part of biological and botanical training,
‘and to encourage the preparation of outstanding textbooks and other curricular materials
on plant conservation. The Group felt that the establishment of specific degrees in
xli
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
conservation might be extended to universities other than those where such degrees are
offered at present.
Training needs to go hand in hand with general education and awareness-building on the
need for plant conservation. Here we need good educational materials and a cadre of
enthusiasts to put across the concepts and practice of plant conservation in the press, on
radio and on television. Better use should be made of Botanic Gardens, which can provide
the most important single point of information for the public on plant conservation issues.
This section draws extensively on the conclusions of the first meeting of the IUCN/ WWF
Plant Advisory Group, outlined in full in Threatened Plants Newsletter, No. 14: 4-7
(1985).
xlii
Definitions of the IUCN Red
Data Categories
Extinct (Ex)
Taxa which are no longer known to exist in the wild after repeated searches of their type
localities and other known or likely places.
Endangered (E)
Taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue
operating.
Included are taxa whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats
have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate danger of
extinction.
Vulnerable (V)
Taxa believed likely to move into the Endangered category in the near future if the causal
factors continue operating.
Included are taxa of which most or all the populations are decreasing because of over-
exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental disturbance; taxa
with populations that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security is not yet
assured; and taxa with populations that are still abundant but are under threat from
serious adverse factors throughout their range.
Rare (R)
Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or Vulnerable, but
are at risk.
These taxa are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are
thinly scattered over a more extensive range.
Indeterminate (I)
Taxa known to be Extinct, Endangered, Vulnerable or Rare but where there is not enough
information to say which of the four categories is appropriate.
Out of danger (O)
Taxa formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered
relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous
threat to their survival has been removed.
In practice, Endangered and Vulnerable categories may include, temporarily, taxa whose
populations are beginning to recover as a result of remedial action, but whose recovery is
insufficient to justify their transfer to another category.
Insufficiently known (K)
Taxa that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to any of the above categories,
because of the lack of information.
N.B. For species which are neither rare nor threatened, the symbol ‘nt’ is used.
}
xliii
References for introductory
chapters
Barreno, E. et al. (Eds) (1984). Listado de Plantas Endemicas, Raras o Amenazadas de
Espafia. Informacion Ambiental. Conservacionismo en Espafia. No. 3.7 pp.
Borhidi, A. and Mufiiz, O. (1983). Catdlogo de Plantas Cubanas Amenazadas o
Extinguidas. Edit. Academia. 85 pp.
Burtt Davy, J. (1938). The classification of tropical woody vegetation-types. Inst. Pap.
Imp. For. Inst. 13: 1-85.
Croat, T. (1978). Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford Univ. Press, California.
943 pp.
FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project (in the Framework
of the Global Environment Monitoring System - GEMS). UN 32/6.1301-78-04.
Technical Reports nos. 1-3, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome. (Comprises 3 separate reports: Los Recursos Forestales de la
América Tropical. 343 pp. (Forest Resources of Tropical America; in Spanish); 2 -
Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. 108, 586 pp. (In English and French); 3 -
Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. 475 pp. (In English and French).)
Frodin, D.G. (1984). Guide to Standard Floras of the World. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge. 619 pp.
Frost, L.C. (1981). The study of Ranunculus ophioglossifolius and its successful
conservation at the Badgeworth Nature Reserve, Gloucestershire. In Synge, H.
(Ed.), The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation. Wiley, Chichester. Pp.
481-489.
Given, D.R. (1976, 1977, 1978). Threatened Plants of New Zealand: A Register of Rare
and Endangered Plants of the New Zealand Botanical Region. DSIR, Christchurch.
(Loose-leaf.)
Given, D.R. (1976). A register of rare and endangered indigenous plants in New
Zealand. N.Z. J. Bot. 14(2): 135-149.
Given, D.R. (1981a). Rare and Endangered Plants of New Zealand. Reed, Wellington.
154 pp.
Given, D.R. (1981b). Threatened plants of New Zealand: documentation in a series of
islands. In Synge, H. (Ed.), The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation.
Wiley, Chichester. Pp. 67-80.
Hall, A.V., de Winter, M. and B., van Oosterhout, S.A.M. (1980). Threatened Plants
of Southern Africa. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No. 45,
Pretoria. 244 pp.
Hall, A.V., de Winter, B., Fourie, S.P. and Arnold, T.H. (1984). Threatened plants in
southern Africa. Biol. Conserv. 28(1): 5-20.
Harper, J.L. (1977). Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press, London.
Henderson, D.M. (1983). International Directory of Botanical Gardens IV, 4th Ed.,
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Koenigstein, W.-Germany. 288 pp.
Henifin, M.S. et a/. (1981). Guidelines for the preparation of status reports on rare or
endangered plant species. In Morse, L.E. and Henifin, M.S. (Eds), Rare Plant
Conservation: Geographical Data Organization. New York Botanical Garden. Pp.
261-282.
Heywood, V.H. (Ed.) (1978). Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford Univ. Press. 336
pp.
xliv
References for introductory chapters
Holmgren, P.K., Keuken, W. and Schofield, E.K. (1981). Index Herbariorum: Part 1
The Herbaria of the world, 7th Ed. Scheltema & Holkema, Utrecht and Antwerp.
452 pp.
Howard, R.A. (Ed.) (1974- ). Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and Windward
Islands. 3 vols so far. Arnold Arboretum, Mass.
Huxley, A. (1985). Green Inheritance : The World Wildlife Fund Book of Plants.
Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 193 pp.
IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) (1982). IUCN
Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas. Published for IUCN by Tycooly
International Publishing Ltd, Dublin. 436 pp.
IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980). First Preliminary Draft of the
List of Rare, Threatened and Endemic Plants for the Countries of North Africa and
the Middle East. Mimeo, IUCN, Kew. 170 pp.
Jiménez, J. de J. (1978). Lista tentativa de plantas de la Republica Dominicana que
deben protegerse para evitar su extincién. Coloquio Internacional sobre la practica
de la conservacion, Santo Domingo.
Langman, I.K. (1964). A Selected Guide to the Literature of the Flowering Plants of
Mexico. Univ. Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. 1015 pp.
Lucas, G. and Synge, H. (1978). The IUCN Plant Red Data Book. UCN, Switzerland.
540 pp.
Myers, N. (1980). Conversion of Tropical Moist Forests. (A report prepared for the
Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology of the National Research
Council.) National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 205 pp.
Myers, N. (1984). The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future. Norton, New
York. 399 pp.
Raven, P.H. (1976). Ethics and attitudes. In Simmons, J.B. et a/. (Eds), Conservation
of Threatened Plants. Plenum Press, New York and London. Pp. 155-179.
Richards, P.W., Tansley, A.G. and Watt, A.S. (1939, 1940). The recording of
structure, life-form and flora of tropical forest communities as a basis for their
classification. J. Ecol. 28: 224-239 (1940). Also published as Inst. Pap. Imp. For.
Inst., No. 19 (1939).
Synge, H. (Ed.) (1981). The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation. Wiley,
Chichester. 558 pp.
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1983). List of Rare,
Threatened and Endemic Plants in Europe (1982 edition), 2nd Ed. Nature and
Environment Series No. 27, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. 357 pp.
White, F. (1983). The Vegetation of Africa. A Descriptive Memoir to Accompany the
Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa. Natural Resources Research
20, Unesco, Paris. 356 pp.
Williams, G.R. and Given, D.R. (1981). The Red Data Book of New Zealand: Rare
and Endangered Species of Endemic Terrestrial Vertebrates and Vascular Plants.
Nature Conservation Council, Wellington. 175 pp.
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Afghanistan
Area 636,267 sq. km
Population 14,292,000
Floristics About 3000 species (Kitamura, 1960-1966); estimated 25-30% species
endemism (I.C. Hedge, 1984, in /itt.). 23 endemic genera, most in the mountains (Hedge
and Wendelbo, 1970). The flora includes Central Asiatic and Eastern elements (including
many alpines found along the mountain chains of the Altai, Pamir Himalaya and south-
west China); Himalayan elements in extreme east and north-east; Eurasiatic and Western
elements (Stewart, 1982).
Vegetation In the south-west, mostly desert and semi-desert, with scant
vegetation; in south and north-west, thorn scrub with many ephemerals, and grasses; in
west and parts of south, open deciduous woodland with Pistacia and Amygdalus, together
with mixed herb communities and steppe-like vegetation; Artemisia or Haloxylon where
the soils are saline; much of the centre and east up to 3000 m, rising to 7000 m in the
mountainous north-east; West Himalayan evergreen sclerophyllous forest, restricted to
Nuristan and Safed Koh range (Stewart, 1982), with Quercus spp. up to 200 m, Pinus
gerardiana (2100-2500 m), Cedrus deodara (2500-3100 m), Picea smithiana and Abies
wallichiana at 2900-3300 m (Freitag, 1971); juniper woodland up to 3500 m; alpine
vegetation mainly restricted to a few mountain ranges in east (Breckle, in Davis, Harper
and Hedge, 1971).
Checklists and Floras Afghanistan is included in Flora Iranica (Rechinger,
1963- ), cited in Appendix 1, and Flore de L’Iran (1943-1952), cited under Iran. Other
relevant works:
Grey-Wilson, C. (1974). Some notes on the flora of Iran and Afghanistan. Kew Bull.
29(1): 19-81. (Annotated checklist of plants collected during 1971 expedition; notes
on vegetation of Makran, Wakhan and Pamir regions of north-east Afghanistan.)
Hedge, I. and Wendelbo, P. (1964). Studies in the Flora of Afghanistan, 1. Norwegian
Univ. Press, Oslo. 56 pp. (Annotated list of 7 ferns, 157 angiosperms collected on
1962 expedition; notes on vegetation.)
Kitamura, S. (1960-1966). Flora of Afghanistan, 3 vols. Kyoto University, Japan. (1,2
- Enumeration of plants collected during the Kyoto Univ. Scientific Expedition to
Karakoram and Hindukush, 1955; details of distributions, Latin diagnoses of new
species; 3 - additions and corrections.)
Information on Threatened Plants No national list available. U/mus wallichiana
was included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Additional References
Breckle, S.-W., Frey, W. and Hedge, I.C. (1969, 1975). Botanical literature of
Afghanistan. Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 29: 357-371; 33: 503-521. (A useful
bibliography of botanical literature and maps.)
Davis, P.H., Harper, P.C. and Hedge, I.C. (Eds) (1971). Plant Life of South-West
Asia. Botany Society of Edinburgh. 335 pp. (See in particular S.W. Breckle on the
vegetation in alpine regions of Afghanistan, pp. 107-116; H. Freitag on the natural
vegetation of Afghanistan, pp. 89-106; P. Wendelbo on distributional patterns
within the Flora Iranica area, pp. 29-41.)
Freitag, H. (1971). Die Natiirliche Vegetation Afghanistans. Beitrage zur Flora und
Vegetation Afghanistans, 1. Vegetatio 22: 285-344.
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Frey, W. and Probst, W. (1978). Vegetation und Flora des Zentralen Hindukus
(Afghanistan). Reichart, Weisbaden. 126 pp.
Hedge, I.C. and Wendelbo, P. (1970). Some remarks on endemism in Afghanistan.
Israel J. Bot. 19: 401-417.
Podlech, D. and Anders, O. (1977). Florula des Wakhan (Nordost-Afghanistan). Mitt.
Bot. Miinchen 13: 361-502. (Includes annotated checklist, in German.)
Stewart, R.R. (1982). History and exploration of plants in Pakistan and adjoining
areas. In Nasir, E. and Ali, S.I. (Eds), Flora of Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural
Research Council, Islamabad. 186 pp. (Published as a separate fascicle; see in
particular pp. 155-174.)
Agalega Islands
Two small coralline islands c. 930 km north of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, 10°20’S
56°20’E. The islands, c. 10 and c. 8 km long, are connected by a narrow sand bank. They
are well wooded with coconut trees, casuarinas, and other trees; the cultivation of
coconuts is the only industry on the islands. 91 species of plant were seen by the late J.
Procter in 1972 (unpublished manuscript); 6 species recorded by Hemsley (1919), but 60
species more realistic (Procter, pers. comm. to S. Renvoize, reported in Renvoize, 1979).
The islands are a dependency of Mauritius.
References
Hemsley, W.B. (1919). Flora of Aldabra: with notes on the flora of neighbouring
islands. Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1919: 108-153. (Checklist, with descriptions of new
species.)
Lincoln, G. (1893). Agalega Islands: a report to Sir H.E. Jerringham. Port Louis,
Mauritius. Unpublished. 19 pp. (Illus.)
Renvoize, S.A. (1979). The origins of Indian Ocean island floras. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 107-129.
Albania
Area 28,748 sq. km
Population 2,985,000
Floristics 3100-3300 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 24 national endemics (IUCN figures); c. 300 Balkan
endemics. Elements: Central European, Mediterranean and alpine. Floristically diverse
areas include serpentine and limestone rocks that support many Tertiary relict species.
Vegetation Little recent data on present extent and composition. According to
Markgraf (1932) there are 4 natural vegetation zones stretching north-scuth: 1 - a narrow
coastal belt, now largely agricultural with some maquis, phrygana and secondary steppe; 2
- a broad Mediterranean and transitional deciduous forest zone to the east; 3 - central
European deciduous montane forests of beech dominating the eastern mountain belt, with
2
Albania
scattered patches of Macedonian Pine (Pinus peuce); 4 - at highest elevations, mostly
along Yugoslav border in the north and east, a subalpine and alpine zone.
Checklists and Floras One of the least known countries botanically in Europe,
but covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980) and the Mea-
Checklist (both cited in Appendix 1). No complete national Flora, but see Hayek
(1924-1933, cited in Appendix 1), although the area delimited as Albania there does not
exactly correspond to the limits of the modern state.
Most recent regional Floras:
Mitrushi, I. (1955). Drurét dhe Shkurret e Shqipérisé. Instituti i Shkencave, Tirané.
604 pp. (Monocotyledons; dicotyledons; line drawings; maps.)
Mitrushi, I. (1966). Dendroflora e Shqipérisé (Tree Flora of Albania). Univ. Shtetévor i
Tiranes, Tirané. 519 pp. (Partially supercedes above work; includes cultivated
species; 617 line drawings.)
Paparisto, K., Qosja, X. and Demiri, M. (1962, 1965). Flora e Tiranés, Ikonographia,
2 vols. Univ. Shtetévor i Tiranes, Tirané. 520 pp., 515 pp. (Covers Tirana region
only; habitats; vol. 2 contains 1300 line drawings.)
Checklists:
Alston, A.H.G. and Sandwith, N.Y. (1940). Results of two botanical expeditions to
south Albania. J. Bot. 78: 119-126, 147-151, 167-174, 193-199, 219-224, 232-246.
(Checklist for southern Albania.)
Bornmiiller, J. (1933). Zur flora von Montenegro, Albanien und Mazedonien. Magyar
Bot. Lapok 32(1/6): 109-142. (Angiosperm checklist.)
Javorka, A. et al. (1926). Adatok Albania florajahoz. Additamenta ad floram
Albaniae. 7. Anthophyta. A Magyar Tud. Akad. Balk.-Kutat. tud. ered. 3: 219-346.
(Angiosperm checklist.)
Markgraf, F. (1931). Pflanzen aus Albanien 1928. Denkschrift. Akad. Wiss. Wien
Math.-naturw. 102. 360 pp. (Checklist of vascular species compiled in 1928.)
Relevant botanical journal: Buletin i Universitet Shtetévor té Tiranes, Seria Shkencat
Natyrore (Bulletin of the State’s University of Tirana, Series of Natural Sciences).
Information on Threatened Plants No national plant Red Data Book. Included
in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in Appendix 1)
but for Albania this is based upon data from the 1920s; latest IUCN statistics, based upon
this work: endemic taxa — E:1, V:2, R:11, 1:6, K:2, nt:2; non-endemics rare or threatened
worldwide - V:2, R:59, I:3 (world categories).
Useful Addresses
Botanical Institute of the University of Tirana, Tirana.
Additional References
G6lz, P. and Reinhard, H.R. (1984). Die Orchideenflora Albaniens. Mitt. Bl.
Arbeitskr. Heim. Orch. Baden-Wiirtt. 16(2): 193-394. (Comprehensive mapping
register es orchid flora of Albania; includes short history of floristic research.)
Hayek, A. von (1917, 1924). Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Flora des Albanisch-Montene-
Grinischen Grenzgebietes. Denkschrift. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math.-naturw. 94 and 99.
224 pp. (Floristic knowledge about the flora of the Albanian-Montene-Grinischen
border districts; illus.)
Markgraf, F. (1925). Botanische Reiseeindriicke aus Albanien. Repert. Spec. Nov. Reg.
Veget. 36: 60-82. (Botanical journeys in Albania; descriptive account.)
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Markgraf, F. (1932). Pflanzengeographie von Albanien. Ihre Bedeutung fiir Vegetation
und Flora der Mittelmeerlander. Bib. Bot. 105. 132 pp. (Map; photographs.)
Markgraf, F. (1970). Die floristische Stellung und Gliederung Albaniens. Feddes
Repert. 81(1-5): 215-222. (A descriptive account of the floristic composition and
structure of the Albanian flora.)
Markgraf, F. (1974). Floristic report for Albania. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(1): 5-7.
Ubrizsy, G. and Pénzes, A. (1960). Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Flora und der Vegetation
Albaniens. Acta Bot. 6(1/2): 155-170.
Aleutian Islands
A continuous chain of about 12 large and 50 small islands, extending westwards for nearly
2000 km from the Alaska Peninsula to 172°W, close to the Commander Islands
(Komendorskiye Ostrova - to U.S.S.R.). The Aleutians are a Territory of the U.S.A.,
cover 17,666 sq. km and have around 6700 people. Including the Commander Islands, the
flora comprises 533 taxa of native and introduced vascular plants. ‘‘A few endemics.”’
Floristic affinities to the Kamtchatka Peninsula of eastern U.S.S.R. rather than to the
Arctic. Vegetation predominantly of heath, dominated by Ericaceae, with meadows in
more sheltered places and fragments of alpine meadows in upland areas. The above taken
from:
Hultén, E. (1960). Flora of the Aleutian Islands. Cramer, Codicote, Herts, U.K., and
Hafner, New York. 376 pp., plus 533 distributional maps and 32 plates. (Includes
westernmost Alaska Peninsula and with notes on the flora of the Commander
Islands.)
For information on threatened plants, see:
Murray, D.F. (1980). Threatened and Endangered Plants of Alaska. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service and U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land
Management. 59 pp. (42 species, dot maps, black ink drawings.)
Algeria
Area 2,381,745 sq. km
Population 21,272,000
Floristics 3139 species (Quézel and Santa, 1962-1963); 3150 species (Le Houérou,
1975). c. 250 endemic species (Quézel, 1964; 1978, cited in Appendix 1). The Ahaggar
mountain massif in the south, and the north coast are especially rich.
Most of Algeria has a Saharan flora, but there is also a narrow coastal band with a
Mediterranean flora, and a transition zone between the two. Mediterranean and African
elements occur together on the Ahaggar massif.
Vegetation Mostly desert with little or no perennial vegetation, and semi-desert
grassland and shrubland in the north. Coastal band of Mediterranean sclerophyllous
4
Algeria
forest. Saharomontane vegetation occurs on the Ahaggar massif, including tree, shrub and
grassland communities. Mediterranean montane forests and altimontane shrubland occur
on Grande Kabylie in the north.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Algeria is included in the incomplete Flore de l’Afrique du
Nord, the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980), Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and is being covered in
Mead-Checklist; these are all cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Lapie, G. and Maige, A. (1915?). Flore Forestiére d’Algérie. Orlhac, Paris. 359 pp.
(Line drawings throughout. Also includes the more common woody plants of
Tunisia, Morocco and southern France.)
Quézel, P. and Santa, S. (1962-1963). Nouvelle Flore de l’Algérie et des Régions
Désertiques Méridionales, 2 vols. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
Paris. 1170 pp. (Descriptive keys, distributions; 20 black and white photographs in
each volume.)
Information on Threatened Plants Algeria is included in the draft list for North
Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat
(1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Faurel, L. (1959). Plantes rares et menacées d’Algérie. In Animaux et Végétaux Rares
de la Région Méditerranéenne. Proceedings of the IUCN 7th Technical Meeting,
11-19 September 1958, Athens, vol. 5. IUCN, Brussels. Pp. 140-155. (Includes lists
of rare or threatened plants in different parts of Algeria.)
Mathez, J., Quézel, P. and Raynard, C. (1985). The Maghrib countries. In Gémez-
Campo, C. (Ed.), Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean Area.
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:31, V:22, R:65, 1:6, K:9, nt:38; non-endemic taxa
rare or threatened worldwide - V:2, R:5, 1:9 (world categories).
Botanic Gardens
Jardin d’Essais du Hamma, Rue de Lyon, Hamma.
University Botanic Garden, University d’Alger, Alger.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Ministére de 1’Hydraulique, de l’Environnement et des
Fo6rets, Ex Grand Seminaire, Kouba, Alger.
CITES Scientific Authority: Institut National de la Recherche Forestiére, Arboretum de
Baienm, B.P. 37, Cheraga, Alger.
Additional References
Barry, J.P., and Faurel, L. (1973). Notice de la feuille de Ghardaia. Carte de la
végétation de |’Algérie au 1:500,000. Mém. Soc. Hist. Nat. Afr. N., n.s. 11: 1-125.
(Map.)
Barry, J.P., Celles, J.C. and Faurel, L. (1974). Notice de la carte internationale du
tapis végétal et des conditions écologiques. Feuille d’Alger au 1:1,000,000. Université
d’Alger. 42'pp. (Map.)
Cannon, W.A. (1913). Botanical Features of the Algerian Sahara. Publication No. 178,
Carnegie Institute, Washington. 81 pp. (84 black and white photographs.)
Guinet, P. (1958). Notice détaillée de la feuille de Beni-Abbés (coupure spéciale de la
carte de la végétation de l’Algérie au 1:200,000). Bull. Serv. Carte Phytogéogr., Sér.
A., Carte de la végétation 3: 21-96. CNRS, Paris.
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Le Houérou, H.-N. (1975). Etude préliminaire sur la compatibilité des flores nord-
africaine et palestinienne. In CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 345-350.
Quézel, P. (1964). L’endémisme dans la flore d’Algérie. Compt. Rend. Somm. Séanc.
Soc. Biogéogr. 361: 137-149.
Quézel, P. and Bounaga, D. (1975). Apercu sur la connaissance actuelle de la flore
d’Algérie et de Tunisie. In CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 125-130.
American Samoa
The Samoan Archipelago is a chain of tropical, volcanic islands extending in a west-
northwesterly direction in the South Pacific Ocean, 4200 km south-west of Hawaii and
1000 km north-east of Fiji. The archipelago is divided politically into American (or
Eastern) Samoa and Western Samoa. American Samoa, an unincorporated territory of the
United States, comprises 6 inhabited islands and about 20 small uninhabited islets. It
includes Swains Island, which is geographically part of the Tokelau Islands. Western
Samoa is covered separately.
Area 197 sq. km
Population 34,000
Floristics 489 vascular plant species, including naturalized introduced plants; 11
endemic species (Amersen ef a/., 1982). Of the 140 fern species, 16 are endemic (Amersen
et al., 1982). Species endemism for the whole of the Samoan Archipelago is c. 25%
(Whistler, 1980). The flora of American Samoa is closely allied to that of neighbouring
Western Samoa, Fiji and Tonga.
Vegetation Lowland tropical evergreen rain forest, with Diospyros, Dysoxylum,
Pometia and Syzygium, up to 300 m; montane forest, with Dysoxylum, at 300-700 m;
Syzygium samoense cloud forest only found on Tau and Olosega at 500-930 m; small areas
of montane scrub on Tutuila; mangroves and swamps near the coast. About two thirds of
the native vegetation has been disturbed or cleared for settlements and agriculture. The
area of disturbed forest (including Rhus secondary forest) was estimated to be c. 40 sq. km
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service figures, quoted by Whistler, 1980).
Checklists and Floras
Amerson, A.B., Whistler, W.A. and Schwaner, T.D. (1982). Wildlife and Wildlife
Habitat of American Samoa, 2 parts. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,
D.C. (1 - Environment and ecology, with list of 15 ‘‘potentially threatened species’’;
2 - flora and fauna, with checklist of 489 vascular plant species, most of which are
native species; notes on distribution, endemics indicated.)
Christensen, C. (1943). A revision of the pteridophyta of Samoa. Bull. Bernice P.
Bishop Mus. 177. 138 pp. (Covers both Western Samoa and American Samoa;
revision of Selaginella by A.H.G. Alston.)
Christophersen, E. (1935, 1938). Flowering plants of Samoa. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop
Mus. 128. 221 pp.; 154. 77 pp.
Parham, B.E.V. (1972). Plants of Samoa. DSIR Information Series no. 85, Govt
Printer, Wellington, N.Z. 162 pp. (Short descriptions of plants from Western
Samoa, arranged alphabetically by local names; many species also occur on
American Samoa.)
6
American Samoa
Information on Threatened Plants The only available list is that of 15
“‘potentially threatened species’’, in Amerson, Whistler and Schwaner, cited above.
Additional References
Whistler, W.A. (1980). The vegetation of Eastern Samoa. Allertonia 2(2): 46-190.
Whistler, W.A. (1983). The flora and vegetation of Swains Island. Afol/ Res. Bull. 262.
25 pp.
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are island groups in the Bay of Bengal, the former of
204 large and small islands, and the latter of about 22 smaller islands. The islands are
administered as a Union Territory of the Republic of India.
Area 8120 sq. km
Population 185,254 (1981 census, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics c. 2270 flowering plant species, of which 225 are endemic
(Balakrishnan, 1977; Balakrishnan and Rao, 1984). The flora of the Andamans is related
to that of Burma and north-east India, while that of the Nicobars is more closely related to
that of Sumatra and Malaysia.
Vegetation The Andamans have tropical evergreen rain forest, rich in
Dipterocarpus and Pterocarpus, tropical semi-evergreen rain forest and tropical moist
deciduous forest. The Nicobars have tropical broadleaved evergreen rain forest, with
Terminalia, Mangifera, Calophyllum, Garcinia and Cyathea. Remaining areas of rain
forest are under severe pressures from logging and agriculture, particularly on the
Andamans. Coastal areas of both the Andamans and Nicobars support mangrove forests,
beach forests and littoral communities; scrub forest on the low flat islands of the northern
Nicobars.
Checklists and Floras The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are included in the
Flora of British India (Hooker, 1872-1897), cited in Appendix 1. For ferns see Beddome
(1892), and the companion volume by Nayar and Kaur (1972), cited in Appendix 1. Rather
dated accounts include:
Gamble, J.S. (1903). A Preliminary List of the Plants of the Andaman Islands. Chief
Commissioner’s Press, Port Blair. 51 pp.
Kurz, S. (1870). Report on the Vegetation of the Andaman Islands. Office of Govt
Printing, Calcutta. 75 pp. (Includes enumeration of 660 phanerogams and 50
cryptogams; notes on distributions and main timber trees.)
Parkinson, C.E.) (1923). A Forest Flora of the Andaman Islands. Govt Central Press,
Simla. 325 pp. (Reprinted 1972 by Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
Keys, short descriptions of 540 native species.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Balakrishnan, N.P. (1977). Recent botanical studies in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Bull. Bot. Survey India 19: 132-138. (Lists 136 ‘rare’ and ‘endangered’ endemic
species.)
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Balakrishnan, N.P. and Rao, M.V.K. (1983). The dwindling plant species of Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. In Jain, S.K. and Rao, R.R. (Eds), An Assessment of
Threatened Plants of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 186-210. (Lists
110 threatened endemic taxa and 136 threatened non-endemics; notes on
distribution.)
Botanical Survey of India (undated). Endangered flora of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Mimeo, 5 pp. (Issued by the Botanical Survey of India, Andaman and
Nicobar Circle, Port Blair; overview of vegetation and threats to species.)
Jain, S.K. and Sastry, A.R.K. (1980). Threatened Plants of India - A State-of-the-Art
Report. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 48 pp. (Includes accounts of 11
threatened plants from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.)
Thothathri, K. (1960). Studies on the flora of the Andaman Islands. Bull. Bot. Survey
India 2: 357-373. (281 species listed, with notes on distribution and abundance on
the islands.)
Useful Addresses
Botanical Survey of India, Andaman-Nicobar Circle, Regional Herbarium,
Horticultural Road, Port Blair 744102, India.
Additional References
Kurz, S. (1876). A sketch of the vegetation of the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal 45(2): 105-164. (Includes notes on 624 vascular plant taxa.)
Melville, R. (1970). Endangered plants and conservation in the islands of the Indian
Ocean. In IUCN, //th Technical Meeting Papers and Proceedings, 2. Problems of
Threatened Species. {UCN New Series 18, Switzerland. Pp. 103-107.
Sahni, K.C. (1958). Mangrove forests in the Andamans and Nicobar Islands. Indian
Forester 84: 554-562.
Thothathri, K. (1962). Contribution to the flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Bull. Bot. Survey India 4: 281-296. (Floristic analysis; notes on vegetation.)
Andorra
The principality of Andorra is situated on the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, between
Spain and France. It is surrounded by mountains, 2000-3500 m high, and nowhere falls
below 900 m.
Area 465 sq. km
Population 34,000
Floristics and Vegetation Over 1000 native flowering plant species (Losa and
Montserrat, 1950). The most floristically diverse areas occur on the alkaline rocks at Pic de
Casamanya, in the centre of the country, and in the north-west around Arinsal and
Ordino. About one-third of the country is covered by forest of pine, fir, oak and birch, but
a large proportion is plantation. Rich alpine meadows are widespread, although many
mountain slopes have been developed for skiing, causing extensive damage.
Checklists and Floras No national Flora. See:
Losa, M. and Montserrat, P. (1950). Aportacion al Conocimiento de la Flora de
Andorra. Botanica 6. No. 53. 184 pp. Consejo Superior de Investigaciénes
8
Andorra
Cientificas, Zaragoza. (Without keys; an annotated checklist and floristic account
including lower plants; black and white photographs; line drawings; maps.)
Stefenelli, S. (1979). Guide des Fleurs de Montagne: Pyrenees - Massif-Central - Alpes
- Apennins (French adaptation). Duculot, Paris-Gembloux. 160 pp. (Colour
photographs and ecological data for each species.)
The field-guides of Grey-Wilson (1979) and Polunin and Smythies (1973), both cited in
Appendix 1, cover the flora.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Angola
Area 1,246,700 sq. km
Population 8,540,000
Floristics (Excluding Cabinda) Estimates of size of flora include c. 5000 (Airy
Shaw, 1947; J.-P. Lebrun, 1984, pers. comm.) and c. 4600 (calculated from figures quoted
in Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1). Endemism high; c. 1260 endemics, calculated from
a sample of Conspectus Florae Angolensis (Exell and Goncalves, 1973); this is second in
Africa only to Zaire. Districts with highest levels of endemism are Huilla, Benguela and
Bie, in that order.
Flora predominantly Zambezian, but in northern third of country flora transitional
between Zambezian and Guinea-Congolian. South-west coast with flora of Karoo-Namib
and Kalahari-Highveld regions.
Vegetation Mostly rather uniform Brachystegia-Julbernardia (Miombo)
woodland. Airy Shaw (1947) estimates that this type of woodland, together with other
grassland and wooded grassland areas, occupies 90% of Angola. Only on the coastal belt
and at the southern border do any major deviations from this type occur, and these include
rain forest in the north, desert, montane forest, dry evergreen forest, Baobab associations,
and various types of dry scrub. Zonation is well marked only in the south and south-west
where desert and subdesert formations (containing the famed Welwitschia mirabilis),
Colophospermum mopane (Mopane) bush and thorn scrub succeed one another as rainfall
increases inland. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 440 sq.
km/annum out of 29,000 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras
Carrisso, L. et al. (Eds) (1937- ). Conspectus Florae Angolensis, 4 vols and 1 fascicle.
Junta de Investigacdes do Ultramar, and later Junta de Investigacdes Cientificas do
Ultramar, Lisboa. (Fully annotated checklist with keys. Pteridophytes by E.A.
Schelpe, 1977. Flora now produced in family fascicles; c. 45% published.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants, but four examples of Vulnerable species are given by B.J. Huntley on p. 99 of
Hedberg (1979), cited in Appendix 1.
IUCN has records of 808 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic, including
R:3, I:16, nt:8.
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Garden of Salazar and Floristic Reserve No. 1, Instituto de Investigacdo
Agronomica de Angola, C.P. 406, Huambo.
Additional References
Airy Shaw, J.K. (1947). The vegetation of Angola. J. Ecol. 35: 23-48.
Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1970). Carta Fitogeografica de Angola. Instituto de
Investigacao Cientifica de Angola, Luanda. 323 pp. (With coloured vegetation map
1:2,500,000 and numerous black and white photographs.)
Exell, A.W. and Gongalves, M.L. (1973). A statistical analysis of a sample of the flora
of Angola. Garcia de Orta, Sér. Bot. 1(1-2): 105-128.
Monteiro, R.F.R. (1970). Estudo da Flora e da Vegetacao das Florestas abertas do
Planalto do Bié. Instituto de Investigacao Cientifica de Angola, Luanda. 352 pp.
(With 35 black and white photographs and coloured vegetation map 1:500,000.)
Santos, R. Mendes Dos (1982). Itinerdrios Floristicos e Carta da Vegetagao do Cuando
Cubango. Estudos, Ensaios e Documentos No. 137. Instituto de Investigacdo
Cientifica Tropical/Junta de Investigacdes Cientificas do Ultramar, Lisboa. 266 pp.
(With coloured vegetation map 1:1,000,000.)
Teixeira, J. Brito (1968). Angola. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 193-197.
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Anguilla
A flat coralline island of 91 sq. km and 7000 inhabitants in the Leeward Islands of the
Eastern Caribbean, 113 km north-west of St Kitts. It is administered directly by the United
Kingdom as a Dependent Territory. The vegetation is mostly tropical evergreen bush and
low scrub. For botanical information, see the account on Antigua and Barbuda.
References specifically on Anguilla are:
Boldingh, I. (1909). A contribution to the knowledge of the flora of Anguilla, B.W.I.
Recueil des Travaux Botaniques Neerlandais 6: 1-36. (List of 50 vascular plants,
general ranges given.)
Box, H.E. (1940). Report upon collection of plants from Anguilla, B.W.I. J. Bot. 78:
14-16.
Antarctica
The continent of Antarctica covers 14 million sq. km. Almost the entire area is
permanently covered by ice. There is also a belt of pack ice, between 4 and 22 million sq.
km, surrounding the continent. In addition, there are a number of island groups extending
into the Southern Ocean and southern Indian Ocean (Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands,
New Amsterdam, Heard and Macdonald Islands) and South Atlantic Ocean (South
Orkney and South Shetland Islands).
10
Antarctica
The Crozet Islands, Kerguelen Islands, New Amsterdam, Heard and Macdonald Islands
are rocky islets with mires in which the important peat-forming plants are bryophytes,
tussock-forming grasses, cushion-forming flowering plants and other herbaceous
communities. Much of the land is covered with snow throughout the year. Maritime
Antarctica, the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands are even more barren and are
within the limit of maximum pack ice extension.
For South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, see under the Falkland Islands (Islas
Malvinas). Marion and Prince Edward Islands are covered separately.
Antarctic Continent 2 indigenous vascular plants (Deschampsia antarctica and
Colobanthus quitensis), confined to the vicinity of the Antarctic Peninsula (Greene and
Holtom, 1971).
Crozet Islands Area 505 sq. km; population of 30, permanent mission (1982);
part of the French Southern and Antarctic Territory. 28 vascular plant species (Greene and
Walton, 1975).
Heard and Macdonald Islands Area 412 sq. km; no permanent population;
external territories of Australia. Heard Island has 8 vascular plant species, the Macdonald
Islands have 3 (Greene and Walton, 1975).
Kerguelen Islands Area 7000 sq. km; population of 76, permanent mission
(1982); part of the French Southern and Antarctic Territory. 29 vascular plant species, of
which Lyallia kerguelensis is endemic and a further 7 species, including the famous
Kerguelen Cabbage (Pringlea antiscorbutica), are confined to 2 or more sub-antarctic
islands (Greene and Walton, 1975).
New Amsterdam Area 55 sq. km; population of 92 (1980), permanent mission
(1982); part of the French Southern and Antarctic Territory. 55 vascular plant species (J.
Jérémie, 1984, in litt.).
St Paul Area 7 sq. km; uninhabited; part of the French Southern and Antarctic
Territory. Lowland slopes covered by Poa novare and Spartina arundinacea; wetter areas
dominated by sedges, mainly Scirpus nodosus.
South Orkney Islands Area 620 sq. km; uninhabited; part of the British Antarctic
Territory. 2 vascular plants, Colobanthus quitensis and Desche-npsia antarctica (Brown,
Wright and Darbishire, 1908).
South Shetland Islands Area 4700 sq. km; uninhabited; part of the British
Antarctic Territory. 1 vascular plant (Deschampsia antarctica).
References
Brown, R.N.R., Wright, C.H. and Darbishire, O.V. (1908). The botany of the South
Orkneys. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 23(1):
101-111. (Includes account of mosses and lichens.)
Chastain, A. es) Ie flore et la végétation des Iles de Kerguelen. Mém. Mus.
National Hist. Naturelle, Ser. B, Bot. 11(1). 136 pp.
Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Cited in Appendix 1.
Cour, P. (1959). Flore et végétation de l’Archipel de Kerguelen. Terres Australes et
Antarctiques Francais 8/9: 3-40.
Greene, S.W. and Holtom, A. (1971). Studies in Colobanthus quitensis (Kunth) Bartl.
and Deschampsia antarctica Desv., 5. Distribution, ecology and performance on
Signy Island. Brit. Antarctic Survey Bull. 28: 11-28.
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Greene, S.W. and Walton, D.W.H. (1975). An annotated check list of the sub-antarctic
and antarctic vascular flora. Polar Record 17(110): 473-484.
Hemsley, W.B. (1885). Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger During the Years 1873-76. Botany, vol. 1, part 2. London. (See in
particular the section on the Crozets, including annotated checklist of 7 vascular
plants, pp. 207-211; the Kerguelen Islands, including checklist of 21 vascular plants,
pp. 211-243; the Macdonald Group, including checklist of lower plants and 5
vascular plants on Heard Island, pp. 245-258; New Amsterdam and St Paul,
pp. 259-281.)
Hooker, J.D. (1844-1847). The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. Discovery
Ships Erebus and Terror, in the Years 1839-1843, 2 vols. London. (1 - Flora
Antarctica, Lord Auckland’s Group and Campbell’s Island; 2 - Flora Antarctica,
the Antarctic Region.)
IUCN (1984). Conservation and Development of Antarctic Ecosystems. 1\UCN,
Switzerland. 36 pp.
Skottsberg, C. (1954). Antarctic flowering plants. Bot. Tidsskr. 51: 330-338.
Young, S.B. (1971). Vascular flora of the Kerguelen Islands. Antarctic J. United States
6(4): 110-111.
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua One of the more northerly of the Leeward islands of the Lesser Antilles;
low-lying, reaching only 415 m altitude; mostly under sugar cultivation. About 45 km
WSW of Antigua is Redonda (‘‘Round Island’’), 1.3 sq. km, a fragment of a volcano and
rising to 300 m; uninhabited apart from about 100 feral goats.
Barbuda 40 km north of Antigua; flat, only 30.5 m altitude; has a large lagoon
and coastal sand-dunes.
Area Antigua: 279 sq. km; Barbuda: 160 sq. km
Population Antigua: 7300 (1979 estimate); Barbuda: 1500 (1979 estimate)
Floristics 724 angiosperms with 0.7% endemism (Box, 1938, see below, analysed
by C.D. Adams). These figures are likely to change considerably as the Flora of the Lesser
Antilles is published.
Vegetation
Antigua Mostly dry scrub woodland and man-made grassland; several types of
seasonal forest, mostly low and secondary; in areas of low rainfall and limestone soils,
several types of evergreen thicket and scrub; on the coast some mangrove and strand
vegetation. Area of cultivation recorded as no more than 101 sq. km in 1960, decreasing,
being replaced by secondary vegetation (Loveless, 1960). According to FAO (1974, cited in
Appendix 1), 15.9% forested.
Barbuda Mostly natural bush, with trees in the higher terraces and more stunted
bushland vegetation; grassy areas towards the windward coast; lower plains cultivated and
grazed; some coastal mangrove and sand dunes.
12
Antigua and Barbuda
Checklists and Floras Covered by the Flora of the Lesser Antilles (only
monocotyledons and ferns published so far; Howard, 1974- ), and by the family and
generic monographs of Flora Neotropica. (Both are cited in Appendix 1.) See also:
Alston, A.H.G. and Box, H.E. (1935). Pteridophyta of Antigua. J. Bot. 73: 33-40.
Beard, J.S. (1944). Provisional list of trees and shrubs of the Lesser Antilles.
Caribbean Forester 5(2): 48-67. (428 species in a table showing which are in the
Leeward Is. but not which are on each island in the group.)
Howard, R.A. (1962). Botanical and other observations on Redonda, the West Indies.
J. Arnold Arbor. 43: 51-66. (Includes account of vegetation and species list.)
Stehlé, H. and Stehlé, M. (1947). Liste complémentaire des arbres et arbustes des
petites Antilles. Caribbean Forester 8: 91-123. (A further 328 species to Beard, 1944,
in similar format.)
In 1938, H.E. Box prepared a check list, based on earlier records and collections and his
own collections in Antigua and sight records in Barbuda. The taxonomy and nomenclature
were revised by J.E. Dandy. Includes an historical introduction and an ecological
description of the vegetation. Never published - copies at University of the West Indies
Library, Mona, Jamaica; the Institute of Jamaica, Kingston; and the National Herbarium
of Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad. (C.D. Adams, 1984, pers. comm.).
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Voluntary Organizations
Antigua Archaeological Society, P.O. Box 103, St John’s, Antigua. (Preparing a list of
some of the plants of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, with some of their uses.)
Additional References
Harris, D.R. (1960). The vegetation of Antigua and Barbuda, Leeward Islands, West
Indies. Prelim. Rep. Dep. Geog. Univ. Calif.
Harris, D.R. (1965). Plants, Animals, and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West
Indies. An ecological study of Antigua, Barbuda and Anguilla. University of
California Publications in Geography vol. 18. Univ. California Press, Berkeley.
164 pp. (With photographs and vegetation maps.)
Loveless, A.R. (1960). The vegetation of Antigua, West Indies. J. Ecol. 48(3): 495-527.
Wheeler, L.R. (1916). The Botany of Antigua. J. Bot. 54: 41-52.
Antipodes Islands
The Antipodes (21 sq. km) are an uninhabited, outlying island group of New Zealand, in
the Pacific subantarctic, at 49°42’S, 178°50’E. The vegetation consists mainly of grassland
and is relatively little disturbed. 62 vascular plant taxa (Flora of New Zealand, 1961, cited
under New Zealand). One endemic, Gentiana antipoda (IUCN category: Rare). The
islands were declared a Nature Reserve in 1961. For more information see Given, 1981a,
cited under New Zealand.
Argentina
Area 2,777,815 sq. km
Population 30,094,000
Floristics Approximately 9000 species of vascular plants (J. Hunziker, 1984,
pers. comm.), most in the tropical region; 25-30% endemic. Botanically the best known
country in South America (Toledo, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). Areas of high endemism
and diversity are: Provinces Patagonia, Punefia, Altoandina, del Monte and Paranaense
(Hunziker, pers. comm.). The flora of the southern Andes has affinities to the flora of
New Zealand.
Vegetation In the northeast, rain forest; in the northwest provinces of Jujuy and
Salta subtropical semi-deciduous forest and subtropical evergreen seasonal submontane
broadleaved forest (Unesco, 1981, cited in Appendix 1); in north central and central
Argentina, the Gran Chaco, a mixture of xerophilous forest and savannas, with many
halophytic and swamp associations. To the south the Pampa, a vast savanna and open
prairie, without native trees, mostly grazed or cultivated; in Patagonia, the southern
quarter of the country, mainly steppe and tundra, with coniferous forest in the west, low
deciduous thicket in the northeast and subdesert deciduous shrubland and tundra in the
south (Unesco, 1981). In the Andes, north to south, vegetation includes cloud forest and
dry puna in the north, caespitose herbaceous communities all along and temperate forest
in the south.
Checklists and Floras Recent floristic research in Argentina has focussed on the
production of regional Floras, sponsored by the Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia
Agropecuaria (INTA):
Burkart, A. (1969- ). Flora Ilustrada de Entre Rios (Argentina). Coleccion Cientifica
del INTA, Buenos Aires. 6 vols planned, 3 completed: 2 - grasses (1969); 5 -
Primulales to Plantaginales (1978); 6 - Rubiales to Campanulales (1974).
Cabrera, A.L. (1963-1970). Flora de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 6 vols. INTA,
Buenos Aires.
Cabrera, A.L. (1977- ). Flora de la Provincia de Jujuy, Republica Argentina. INTA,
Buenos Aires. 3 vols published out of 10; includes Pteridofitas (1977) and
Compositae (1978). (To cover an estimated 3500 species.)
Cabrera, A.L. and Zardini, E.M. (1978). Manual de la Flora de los Alrededores de
Buenos Aires, 2nd Ed. Acme, Buenos Aires. 755 pp.
Correa, M.N. (1969- ). Flora Patagénica. INTA, Buenos Aires. 4 vols published,
8 projected.
Dimitri, M.J. (1962). La flora andino-patagénica. Anal. Parques Nacionales 9: 1-130.
Dimitri, M.J. (1974). Pequefia Flora Ilustrada de los Parques Nacionales Andino-
Patagonicos. Publicacion Técnica No. 46, Separada de los Anales de Parques
Nacionales, Tomo 13. 122 pp.
Meyer, T. et al. (1977). Flora Ilustrada de la Provincia de Tucumaén. Fundacion Miguel
Lillo, Tucuman. 305 pp.
Toledo (1985, cited in Appendix 1) refers to the following additional Floras as in progress:
Centro de Argentina by A.T. Humziker (Museo Botanico de Cérdoba), Provincia de
Corrientes by A. Krapovickas (started in 1979), the Chaco by A. Digilio and the Pampa by
G. Covas. A 1984 checklist of 1538 native genera is also referred to.
See also:
14
Argentina
Boelcke, O., Moore, D.M. and Roig, F.A. (1985). La Transecta Boténica de Patagonia
Austral. CONICET, Buenos Aires. (Vegetation, floristics, geology, human impact
and climate for the Atlantic to Pacific Oceans between 51° and 52°S.; includes
2-sheet vegetation map; shorter English version being prepared for Phil. Trans.
(London), 1985-6.)
Cabrera, A. and Ferrario, M. (1970). Bibliografia Botdnica de la Provincia de Buenos
Aires, Plantas Vasculares. Comision de Investigaciones Cientificas, Buenos Aires.
96 pp.
Descole, H.R. (1943-1956). Genera et Species Plantarum Argentinarum. Instituto
Miguel Lillo. 5 vols, few families published.
Dimitri, M.J. (1972). La Regidn de los Bosques Andino-Patagonicos. Coleccién
Cientifica del INTA, Buenos Aires.
Moore, D.M. (1983). Flora of Tierra del Fuego. Nelson, U.K., and Missouri Botanical
Garden. 396 pp. (545 species, 3% endemic; illus., dot maps.)
Seckt, H. (1929-1930). Flora Cordobensis. Universidad Nacional, Cordoba. 632 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. The
following articles and papers contain information on threatened plants:
Endangered and Threatened Plants in the Republic of Argentina. Botanic Garden
Journal of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw. (Not seen.)
Pingitore, E.J. (1976). The Republic of Argentina tree ferns. Los Angeles Int. Fern
Soc. 3(10): 198-203; 3(11): 222-225; 3(12): 246-249. (Includes list of 8 Endangered
and 2 Rare species.)
Pingitore, E.J. (1981). Especies vegetales en vias de extincién de la Republica
Argentina. Sociedad Horticola Argentina 37: 10-13. (Tentative list of 69 threatened
species.)
Pingitore, E.J. (1982). Especies interesantes de La Tierra del Fuego e Islas del
Antarctico Sur. Bol. Soc. Hort. Argentina 38: 10-12. (Tentative list of 38 threatened
species.)
Pingitore, E.J. (1983). Rare palms in Argentina. Principes 26(1): 9-18. (10 native
palms, 7 listed as rare.)
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular A.
Cabrera on endangered plants of Argentina, pp. 245-247; E. de la Sota on
endangered plants and communities, pp. 240-244; J. Mickel on endangered
pteridophytes, pp. 323-328; P. Ravenna on threatened bulbous plants, pp. 257-266.
Lists of threatened plants and plant communities, arranged by region, are given in
Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited in Appendix 1. 24 plants are listed in
the Annex to the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the
Western Hemisphere (1940).
Laws Protecting Plants No information. The U.S. Government has determined
Fitzroya ae Sai confined to Chile and Argentina, as ‘Threatened’ under the U.S.
Endangered Species Act.
Voluntary Organizations
Associacion Natura, 25 de Mayo 749, 1° Piso, Buenos Aires.
Centro de Ecologia y Recursos Naturales Renovables, Universidad Nacional de
Cérdoba, C.C. 395, 5000 Cordoba.
Comité Argentino de Conservacion de la Naturaleza, Avenida Santa Fe 1145, Buenos
Aires.
15
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Instituto de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas y Semiaridas, Parque Gral, San
Martin, Mendoza.
Botanic Gardens
Departamento de Botanica Agricola, Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia Agropecuaria,
1712 Castelar, Provincia Buenos Aires.
Jardin Agrobotanico de Santa Catalina, Instituto Fototécnico de Santa Catalina,
Llavallol, FNGR.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Carlos Thays’’, Instituto Municipal de Botanica, Av. Santa Fe 3951,
1425 Buenos Aires.
Jardin Botanico de la Facultad de Agronomia y Veterinaria, Av. San Martin 4453,
1417 Buenos Aires.
An account of Argentinian botanic gardens is given in:
Sota, E. de la (1979). Argentina: the conservation of endemic and threatened plant
species within botanic gardens. In Synge, H. and Townsend, H. (Eds), Survival or
Extinction. Bentham-Moxon Trust, Kew. Pp. 95-99.
Useful Addresses
Fundacion Vida Silvestre Argentina, Leandro N. Alem 968, 1001 Capital Federal,
Buenos Aires.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Direccién Nacional de Fauna Silvestre,
Paseo Colon 922-2°, Piso Oficina 201, 1063 Buenos Aires; also (Scientific Authority
only) Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘‘Bernardino Rivadavia’’, Avenida
Angel Gallardo 470, 1405 Buenos Aires.
Additional References
Cabrera, A.L. (1972). Estado actual del conocimiento de la Flora Argentina. Mem. I
Congreso Latinoamericano de Botanica. Pp. 183-197. (Not seen.)
Cabrera, A.L. (Ed.) (1977). Evolucién de las Ciencias en la Repiiblica Argentina.
1923-1972. Tomo VI. Botanica. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina. (Not seen.)
Grassi, N. (Ed.) (1982). Conservacién Natural en la Rep. Argentina. Simposio de las
XVIII Jornadas Argentinas de Botanica. Tucuman. 130 pp.
La vegetacién de la Republica Argentina (1951-1968). Various authors. 9 fascicles
reported. INTA, Series Fitogeografica. Buenos Aires.
Ascension Island
A barren volcanic island of 94 sq. km in the South Atlantic, c. 1300 km north-west of St
Helena, 7°57’S 14°22’W. About 1050 residents, plus about 450 military personnel. An
Island Dependency of St Helena, itself a Dependent Territory of the U.K. The highest
point is the peak on the east/west ridge of Green Mountain (860 m). Flora of about 25
native vascular plants; these include 6 endemic fern species and 5 endemic flowering plant
species; of these 1 is Extinct, 5 Endangered, 4 Rare and | Insufficiently Known. About 300
plants introduced deliberately or by accident; also goats, rabbits, donkeys, sheep. The
status of the endemics is outlined in detail in:
Cronk, Q.C.B. (1980). Extinction and survival in the endemic vascular flora of
Ascension Island. Biol. Conserv. 17(3): 207-219.
16
Ascension Island
Other useful references:
Atkins, F.B., Baker, P.E., Bell, J.D. and Smith, D.G.W. (1964). Oxford Expedition to
Ascension Island, 1964. Nature 204: 722-724.
Duffey, E. (1964). The terrestrial ecology of Ascension Island. J. Appl. Ecol. 1:
219-251. (Maps; includes outline of such vegetation as exists and assesses the impact
of man.)
Packer, J.E. (1974). Ascension Handbook: a concise guide to Ascension island, south
Atlantic, 2nd Ed. (1st Ed., 1968). Published privately, Georgetown. Unpaginated,
but Ist Ed. 68 pp. (Includes a checklist of the flora, with line drawings.)
Rudmose Brown, R.N. (1906). Contributions towards the botany of Ascension. Trans.
Bot. Soc. Edinburgh. 23: 199-204.
Auckland Islands
An outlying island group of New Zealand, comprising 7 uninhabited volcanic islands in
the Pacific subantarctic. Total land area of 625 sq. km of which Auckland, the largest
island, is 464 sq. km. 187 native flowering plant taxa, including 6 endemics. The
vegetation, which has been modified by introduced goats, cattle, sheep, pigs and rabbits,
includes coastal Metrosideros forest, scrub and grassland on higher ground and, above
500 m, exposed peatland. Adams Island was declared a Nature Reserve in 1910; the rest of
the Auckland Islands were included in the reserve in 1934. There is a programme to reduce
the numbers of introduced mammals (Clark and Dingwall, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
The Auckland Islands are included in the Flora of New Zealand (1961, 1970, 1980), cited
under New Zealand.
For information on threatened plants, see Given (1981a), cited under New Zealand. Latest
IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - R:1; non-endemic taxa rare or threatened worldwide -
V:1, R:4 (world categories).
Additional References
Godley, E.J. (1969). Additions and corrections to the flora of the Auckland and
Campbell Islands. N.Z. J. Bot. 7: 336-348. (Covers 45 taxa.)
Johnson, P.N. and Campbell, D.J. (1975). Vascular plants of the Auckland Islands.
N.Z. J. Bot. 13: 665-720. (Annotated checklist of 257 taxa including adventives.)
Australia
Area 7,682,300 sq. km
Population 15,519,000
Floristics c. 18,000 known native vascular plant species with an estimated 7000
yet to be named or recorded (Flora of Australia, 1981- ). 80% species endemism; over 500
endemic genera. Species-rich areas include the Cape York Peninsula of northern
Queensland, the South-Western Province and the Coolgardie region of Western Australia,
17
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
the northern part of Northern Territory, the coastal regions of N.S.W., north-east
Victoria and the Central Tablelands.
Vegetation Predominantly desert (receiving less than 250 mm mean annual
rainfall) and semi-desert (250-500 mm rainfall). There are 2 extremely arid regions - the
Nullarbor Plain in the south, and the Lake Eyre Basin/Simpson Desert in central
Australia. Acacia and Eucalyptus shrublands cover 20% of Australia, mainly in centre and
west; Mitchell Grass plains, dominated by Astrebla, cover vast areas of the north,
extending into northern N.S.W.; Kangaroo Grass (Themeda australis) grassland in south-
east, extensively modified for grazing; heathland in south, west and parts of Queensland
and Tasmania, much has been cleared or drained (Leigh, Boden and Briggs, 1984); alpine
communities in Tasmania, Victoria and N.S.W. (Beadle, 1981); open forests, dominated
by Eucalyptus, Callitris and Melaleuca, cover large areas of inland Australia, from the
Kimberleys in Western Australia, extending across the north to Queensland and west of
the Great Dividing Range in N.S.W.; open forests of Eucalyptus, Acacia and Casuarina,
in south-west Western Australia, Northern Territory to Queensland, Cape York to
Victoria and Tasmania; cool temperate rain forest dominated by Nothofagus in Victoria,
N.S.W. and Tasmania; subtropical and temperate rain forest mixtures in N.S.W. and
outliers in north Queensland; subtropical rain forest in south Queensland and north New
South Wales, in places seduced to small pockets; tropical rain forest and tropical monsoon
forest in northern Australia.
c. 20,000 sq. km of all types of rain forest remain, out of an estimated 80,000 sq. km prior
to European settlement. Clearing of forests continuing, mainly for agriculture, grazing
and forest plantations; nearly all subtropical lowland forests destroyed and only a few
thousand hectares of tropical lowland forest remain (Groves, 1981).
Checklists and Floras
Bentham, G. (1863-1878) Flora Australiensis: A Description of the Plants of the
Australian Territory, 7 vols. Reeve, London. (Reprinted 1967 by Asher and Reeve,
Amsterdam.)
Flora of Australia (1981- ). 60 vols (including non-vascular plants) to be published over
a 20-year period. Co-ordinated and edited by the Bureau of Flora and Fauna,
Department of Arts, Heritage and Environment. Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra. (5 vols published so far. 1 - Introduction, origin and evolution,
keys to families; 4 - Phytolaccaceae to Chenopodiaceae, 5 families; 8 -
Lecythidaceae to Bataceae, 19 families; 22 - Rhizophoraceae to Celastraceae, 17
families; 29 —- Solanaceae.)
Checklists of large genera and families include:
Chippendale, G.M. and Wolf, L. (1981). The Natural Distribution of Eucalyptus in
Australia. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Special Publication no. 6.
192 pp. (Checklist of 550 taxa, grid maps showing distributions.)
Clements, M.A. (1982). Preliminary Checklist of Australian Orchidaceae. National
Botanic Gardens, Canberra. 216 pp. (List of over 600 accepted species names, with
synonyms.)
Jones, D.L. and Clemensha, S.C. (1981). Australian Ferns and Fern Allies, 2nd Ed.
Reed, Sydney.
There are many Floras at State and regional level; only a selection are cited here. For a
comprehensive bibliography see Leigh, Boden and Briggs (1984) and the Flora of
Australia, 1 (1981).
18
Australia
Bailey, F.M. (1899-1905). The Queensland Flora with Plates Illustrating Some Rare
Species. Brisbane. (6 parts, General Index.)
Beadle, N.C.W., Evans, O.D., Carolin, R.C. and Tindale, M.D. (1982). Flora of the
Sydney Region, 3rd Ed. Reed, Sydney. 724 pp. (Covers coastal N.S.W.; with line
drawings and colour illus.)
Black, J.M. (1943-1957). Flora of South Australia, 2nd Ed., 4 parts. Govt Printer,
Adelaide. (Part 1 - Lycopodiaceae to Orchidaceae has been revised and edited by
J.P. Jessop, 1978, Woolman, Adelaide. A Supplement to the Flora by H. Eichler
has been published by the Govt Printer, Adelaide, 1965.)
Burbidge, N.T. and Gray, M. (1970). Flora of the Australian Capital Territory.
Australian National Univ. Press, Canberra. 447 pp. (Includes outline of vegetation
of southern Tablelands; with line drawings.)
Curtis, W.M. (1956-1979). Student’s Flora of Tasmania, parts 1-4, 4A. Govt Printer,
Hobart.
Ewart, A.J. and Davies, O.B. (1917). The Flora of the Northern Territory. Govt
Printer, Melbourne. 387 pp. (Annotated list with keys.)
Flora of New South Wales (1961-1978). National Herbarium of New South Wales.
(Discontinued; covers ferns, gymnosperms and 16 flowering plant families, including
grasses. Prior to 1971 published as a ‘Flora Series’ in Contributions from the New
South Wales National Herbarium.)
Green, J.W. (1981). Census of the Vascular Plants of Western Australia. Western
Australian Herbarium, South Perth. 113 pp. (Checklist of ferns, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.)
Jacobs, S.W.L. and Pickard, J. (1981). Plants of New South Wales: A Census of the
Cycads, Conifers and Angiosperms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 226 pp.
(Checklist of c. 6000 taxa, distributions indicated.)
Jessop, J.P. (Ed.) (1981). Flora of Central Australia. Reed, Sydney. (Includes c. 2000
species.)
Jessop, J.P. (Ed.) (1983). A List of the Vascular Plants of South Australia. Adelaide
Botanic Gardens, State Herbarium and Dept of Environment and Planning. 87 pp.
(Checklist of accepted names and synonyms.)
Stanley, T.D. and Ross, E.M. (1983- ). Flora of South-eastern Queensland. Dept of
Primary Industries, Brisbane. 545 pp. (3 vols projected; 1 - keys to dicotyledon
families, treatments of 79 flowering plant families, 1983; 2 & 3 - in prep.)
Willis, J.H. (1962, 1972). A Handbook to Plants in Victoria, 2 vols. University Press,
Melbourne. (1 - Ferns, conifers, monocotyledons; 2 - dicotyledons.)
Field-guides
Blombery, A.M. (1977). Australian Native Plants. Angus and Robertson, Sydney.
481 pp. (Keys to genera, line drawings and descriptions of selected plants.)
Francis, W.D. (1970). Australian Rain-forest Trees, 3rd Ed. Australian Govt Publ.
Service, Canberra. 468 pp. (Keys, descriptions and field characters of mainly
subtropical trees, covering mainly eastern Australia.)
Galbraith, J. (1977). A Field Guide to the Wild Flowers of South-East Australia.
Collins, Sydney. 450 pp. (Includes temperate regions of N.S.W., Victoria,
Tasmania, S. Australia and Queensland.)
Grieve, B.J. and Blackall, W.E. (1954-1975). How to Know Western Australian
Wildflowers: A Key to the Flora of the Temperate Regions of Western Australia,
4 parts. Univ. of Western Australia Press, Nedlands.
Harris, T.Y. (1979). Wild Flowers of Australia, 8th Ed. Angus and Robertson, Sydney.
207 pp. (Keys to families, over 250 species illustrated in colour.)
19
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Hodgson, M. and Paine, R. (1971). A Field Guide to Australian Wildflowers. Rigby,
Adelaide. 251 pp.
Holliday, I. and Hill, R. (1974). A Field Guide to Australian Trees. Rigby, Adelaide.
229 pp. (Revised edition.)
Holliday, I. and Walton, G. (1975). A Field Guide to Banksias. Rigby, Adelaide.
141 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants The national list of threatened Australian
plants has been revised twice; the first version was Specht et al. (1974), the second Hartley
and Leigh (1979) and the third Leigh ef a/. (1981).
Hartley, W. and Leigh, J. (1979). Plants at Risk in Australia. Australian National
Parks and Wildlife Service Occ. Paper no. 3. Canberra. (Provisional list of 2053
plants at risk.)
Leigh, J., Briggs J., and Hartley, W. (1981). Rare or Threatened Australian Plants.
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Special Publication no. 7, Canberra.
178 pp. (2206 species listed as rare or threatened. Separate lists for Lord Howe,
Macquarie, Norfolk, Philip and Christmas Islands; briefly reviewed in Threatened
Plants Committee Newsletter No. 9: 18, 1982.)
Specht, R.L., Roe, E.M. and Boughton, V.H. (Eds) (1974). Conservation of Major
Plant Communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Australian J. Bot. Supp.
Series 7. 667 pp. (Detailed assessment of conservation status of all the major plant
communities and species under threat in each State.)
Also relevant:
Good, R.B. and Leigh, J.H. (1983). The criteria for assessment of rare plant
conservation. In Given, D.R. (Ed.), Conservation of Plant Species and Habitats.
Nature Conservation Council, Wellington, N.Z. Pp. 5-28.
Leigh, J. and Boden, R. (1979). Australian Flora in the Endangered Species
Convention - CITES. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service Special
Publication no. 3, Canberra. 93 pp. (Checklist of taxa covered then by CITES; list
has since been revised; reviewed and outlined in Threatened Plants Committee
Newsletter No. 7: 19-20, 1981.)
Leigh, J., Boden, R. and Briggs, J. (1984). Extinct and Endangered Plants of
Australia. Macmillan, Melbourne. 369 pp. (Includes detailed case studies of 76
species presumed extinct and 203 which are endangered.)
Parsons, R.F., Scarlett, N.H. and Stuwe, J. (1981). A register of rare and endangered
native plants in Victoria. Threatened Plants Committee Newsletter No. 7: 22-23.
(Outline of a project to survey and document rare and threatened plants.)
Pryor, L.D. (1981). Australian Endangered Species: Eucalypts. Australian National
Parks and Wildlife Service Special Publication no. 5, Canberra. 139 pp. (Data
sheets, maps and photographs of 124 species at risk.)
A number of State lists of threatened plants have also been produced, including:
Rye, B.L. (1982). Geographically Restricted Plants of Southern Western Australia.
Report no. 49. Dept of Fisheries and Wildlife, Perth. 63 pp.
Rye, B.L. and Hopper, S.D. (1981). A Guide to the Gazetted Rare Flora of Western
Australia. Report no. 42. Dept of Fisheries and Wildlife, Perth. 211 pp.
A series of illustrated data sheets entitled Rare Western Australian Plants has been
prepared by B.L. Rye for the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Perth, in 1982. (8
seen; notes on ecology, conservation measures; dot maps.)
20
Australia
Latest IUCN statistics: total rare and threatened endemic taxa - Ex:117, E:215, V:570,
R:812, 1:2, K:505, nt: not known; of these, statistics for State endemic taxa are - Ex:110,
E:196, V:503, R:716, 1:2, K:467, nt: not known.
Laws Protecting Plants There is legislation in each State and Territory for the
protection of flora. Legislation is the most detailed in Western Australia, where 128
species are listed as ‘Protected Flora’ under the Wildlife Conservation Act Amendment
Act 1979 of Western Australia. 65 of them are orchids. A further 100 taxa have been listed
as ‘Rare Flora’ which are considered to be in danger of extinction, rare or otherwise in
need of special protection; they can be taken from the wild only with the approval of the
Minister for Fisheries and Wildlife. In Victoria the flora legislation is administered by the
Forestry Commission while in all other States and Territories it is administered by the
relevant nature conservation agency.
Voluntary Organizations
Australian Conservation Foundation, 672B Glenferrie Road, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122.
Australian Flora Foundation, c/o Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.
Society for Growing Australian Plants, c/o The Editor ‘Australian Plants’, 860 Henry
Lawson Drive, Picnic Point, N.S.W. 2213.
Tropical Rainforest Society, Box 5918 CMC, Cairns 4870, Queensland.
WWF-Australia, Level 17, St Martins Tower, 31 Market Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000.
Botanic Gardens Many; for full list see Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
See also:
Royal Australian Institute of Parks and Recreation (1984). A Report on the Collection
of Native Plants in Australian Botanic Gardens and Arboreta. Canberra. 69 pp.
(Lists 55 botanic gardens and arboreta growing native plants, with details of area,
important plant groups in cultivation, and potential for extending collections.)
The principal botanic gardens include:
Adelaide Botanic Garden, North Terrace, Adelaide, S. Australia 5000.
Australian National Botanic Gardens, P.O. Box 158, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601.
Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Kings Park Road, West Perth 6005, W. Australia.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Mrs Macquaries Road, Sydney, New South Wales 2000.
Royal Botanic Gardens of Melbourne, Birdwood Avenue, South Yarra, Victoria 3141.
Royal Tasmanian Botanic Gardens, Queen’s Domain, Hobart, Tasmania 7000.
Useful Addresses
Division of Plant Industry, CSIRO, P.O. Box 1600, Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601.
TRAFFIC Australia, P.O. Box 371, Manly 2095, N.S.W.
Western Australian Wildlife Authority, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, 108
Adelaide Terrace, Perth, W. Australia 6000.
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: Australian National Parks and Wildlife
Service, P.O. Box 636, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601.
The Council of Nature Conservation Ministers (CONCOM) Working Group on
Endangered Flora provides a channel for enquiries from overseas. The CONCOM
Secretariat is at the Department of Arts, Heritage and Environment, G.P.O. Box 1252,
Canberra, A.C.T. 2601.
Additional References
Beadle, N.C.W. (1981). The Vegetation of Australia. Cambridge Univ. Press. 690 pp.
Groves, R.H. (Ed.) (1981). Australian Vegetation. Cambridge Univ. Press. 449 pp.
21
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Morley, B.D. and Toelken, H.R. (Eds) (1983). Flowering Plants in Australia. Rigby,
Adelaide. 416 pp. (Overview of more than 250 flowering plant families; keys to
genera; distribution maps.)
Tracey, J.G. (1982). The Vegetation of the Humid Tropical Region of North
Queensland. CSIRO, Melbourne. 124 pp.
For vegetation maps of Western Australia see:
Beard, J.S. et al. (1972- ). Vegetation Survey of Western Australia, 1:1,000,000
Vegetation Series. Univ. of Western Australia Press, Nedlands. (1 - Kimberley; 2
— Great Sandy Desert; 3 - Great Victoria Desert; 4 - Nullarbor; 5 - Pilbara; 6
— Murchison; 7 - Swan area; each map with explanatory notes.)
Austria
Area 83,853 sq. km
Population 7,489,000
Floristics 2900-3100 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 35 endemic taxa (IUCN figures). Elements: Central
European (Pannonian), sub-Mediterranean and alpine. Areas of diversity: alpine
grasslands and dry steppe regions bordering Hungary in the east.
Vegetation Most remaining semi-natural vegetation in west and central Alps and
close to Hungarian border in far east. Central Alps: forest relicts of Arolla Pine (Pinus
cembra) and European Larch (Larix decidua); eastern Alps: forests of beech and Norway
Spruce (Picea abies) with relict stands of Black Pine (Pinus nigra), interspersed with
meadows, pastures and arable land. In subalpine zone, Mountain Pine (Pinus mugo) and
alder, with alpine heaths. On hills and lowlands north of Alps, patches of beech and
hornbeam forests, amongst arable land and spruce plantations. Some riverine forests with
poplars; those along Danube and March (Morava) rivers, recently threatened by
construction of hydro-electric power stations. Eastern Austria mainly arable with
vineyards, but with relicts of dry Pannonian steppe grassland and oak forests. Small sub-
Mediterranean influence in south with Ostrya carpinifolia and Fraxinus ornus (M.A.
Fischer, 1984, in litt.).
Total tree cover 39.1%; permanent pasture 26.7% (includes alpine grasslands, meadows
and steppe); arable 20% (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). For maps
of vegetation and phytogeography see Wagner (1971).
Checklists and Floras Austria is covered by the 3 regional Floras, Flora
Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980), I/lustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa (Hegi, 1935- ), both
cited in Appendix 1 and Flora von Deutschland und seinen Angrenzenden Gebieten
(Schmeil and Fitschen, 1976, cited under F.R.G.). No modern national Flora, but see:
Fritsch, K. (1922). Exkursionsflora fiir Osterreich und die Ehemals Osterreichischen
Nachbargebiete, 3rd Ed. C. Gerold, Wien. 824 pp. (Includes adjacent countries, but
excludes the Province of Burgenland in eastern Austria; reprinted 1973 by Cramer,
Liechtenstein.)
For a modern national checklist see:
22
Austria
Janchen, E. (1956-1967). Catalogus Florae Austriae, 1 vol. and 4 supplements.
Springer-Verlag, Wien.
Janchen, E. (1977). Flora von Wien, Niederésterreich und Nordburgenland, 2nd Ed.
Verein fiir Landeskunde von Niederésterreich und Wien, Wien. 757 pp.
See also:
Dalla Torre, K.W. and Sarnthein, L.G. von (1900-1913). Flora von Tirol, Vorarlberg
und Liechtenstein, 6 vols. Wagner’schen Univ., Innsbruck.
Hayek, A. von. (1908-1956). Flora von Steiermark, 2 vols. Gebr. Borntraeger, Berlin
and Naturwissenschaftlichen Verein fiir Steiermark, Graz.
For bibliographies see Hamann and Wagenitz (1977), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Ehrendorfer, F., Fiirnkranz, D., Gutermann, W. and Niklfeld, H. (1974). Fortschritte
der Gefasspflanzensystematik, Floristik und Vegetationskunde in Osterreich,
1961-1971. Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien. 114: 63-143.
Relevant journal: Linzer Biologische Beitrége, Linz. (Formerly Mitt. Bot. Arbeits-
gemeinschaft am Oberésterreichischen Landesmuseum, Linz.)
Field-guides See Oberdorfer (1983), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Hegi, G., Merxmiiller, H. and Reisigl, H. (1977). Alpenflora. Die Wichtigeren
Alpenpflanzen Bayerns, Osterreichs und der Schweiz. Parey, Berlin. 194 pp.
(Introduction includes ecological descriptions of plant communities; lists protected
plants; maps; illus.)
HoOpflinger, F. and Schliefsteiner, H. (1981): Naturftihrer Osterreich. Styria, Graz.
480 pp. (Flora and fauna; colour illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants National threatened plant list:
Niklfeld, H. and Karrer, G. (in prep.). Rote Liste Gefaéhrdeter Pflanzen Osterreichs.
Bundesministerium fiir Gesundheit und Umweltschutz, Wien.
See also:
Kux, S., Kasperowski-Schmid, E. and Katzmann, W. (1981). Naturschutz -
Empfehlungen zur Umweltgestaltung und Umweltpflege II. Osterreichisches
Bundesinstitut fiir Gesundheitswesen, Wien. 125 pp. (Includes principles and
problems of nature conservation and countryside management; species protection;
habitat protection; lists threatened animals, plants and protected areas; illus.)
There are threatened plant lists for 4 of the 9 Provinces - Burgenland, Karnten, Salzburg
and Steiermark:
Bach, H. (1978). Karntner Naturschutzhandbuch, Vol. 1. Kartner, Klagenfurt. 779 pp.
(Includes threatened and protected plants, and threatened habitats in the Province of
Karnten; illus.)
Traxler, G. (1978). Verschollene und gefahrdete Gefasspflanzen im Burgenland: Rote
Liste bedrohter Gefasspflanzen (Extinct and endangered vascular plants in
Burgenland: Red list of threatened vascular plants). Natur und Umwelt im
Burgenland |: 1-24. (Lists 619 regionally threatened flowering plants in Burgenland;
conservation categories similar but not identical to those of IUCN.)
Traxler, G. (1980-1982, 1984). Zur Roten Liste der Gefasspflanzen des Burgenlandes.
Nachtrage, Erganzungen und Berichtigungen (I)-(IV), (About the Red List of
vascular plants in Burgenland. Additions, completions and corrections (I)-(IV).)
23
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Natur und Umwelt im Burgenland 3(1): 9-14; 4(1): 22-25; 5(112): 3,4 and Volk und
Heimat (1984) 3: 42-43.
Traxler, G. (1982). Liste der Gefasspflanzen des Burgenlandes (List of vascular plants
in the Burgenland). Veroffent. Internat. Clusius-Forschungsges. Giissing 6: 1-32.
(Checklist; includes conservation categories.)
Weiskirchner, O. (1979). Rote Liste Bedrohter Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen in Salzburg
(Red List of Threatened Ferns and Flowering plants in Salzburg). Amt d. Salzburger
Landesregierung, Naturschutzreferat, Salzburg. 41 pp. (Lists c. 720 taxa.)
Zimmermann, A. and Kniely, G. (1980). Liste verschollener und gefahrdeter Farn- und
Bliitenpflanzen fiir die Steiermark (List of missing and endangered ferns and
flowering plants for Steiermark). Mitt. Inst. Umweltwiss. Naturschutz 3: 3-29. (Lists
over 540 taxa including not threatened endemics.)
Zimmermann, A., Kniely, G., Maurer, W. and Melzer, H. (in prep.). Atlas zur Liste
Verschollener und Gefthrdeter Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen fiir die Steiermark. Graz.
(Distribution maps of species treated in Zimmermann and Kniely, 1980.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - V:1, R:7, I:1,
K:6, nt:20; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - Ex:1, E:1, V:17, R:9, I:5 (world
categories).
Laws Protecting Plants No federal legislation for plant species protection, but
150 taxa are protected by laws and ordinances issued by each of the 9 Provinces. Within
each Province (Bundesland) there are 4 levels of protection; outlined in Kux ef al. (1981)
above. This supercedes the earlier publication:
Plank, S. (1975). Gesetzlich Geschiitzte Pflanzen in Osterreich. Ludwig Boltzmann-
Institut fiir Umweltwissenschaften und Naturschutz, Graz. 50 pp.
Voluntary Organizations
Osterreichischer Naturschutzbund (ONB), Haus der Natur, 5010 Salzburg. (National
Headquarters of the 9 Nature Protection Associations of the respective Provinces.)
WWFE-Austria (Osterreichischer Stiftverband fiir Naturschutz), Ottakringer Str. 120,
Postfach 1, 1162 Wien.
Botanic Gardens
Alpengarten Franz Mayr-Melnhof, 8130 Frohnleiten.
Alpengarten im Oberen Belvedere (Verwaltung der Bundesgarten), Prinz-Eugen-Strasse
27, 1030 Wien 111.
Botanischer Garten des Landes K4rnten, Klinkstrasse 6, 9020 Klagenfurt.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat fiir Bodenkultur, Gregor-Mendel-Strasse 33, 1180
Wien.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Graz, Holteigasse 6, 8010 Graz.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Innsbruck, Sternwartestrasse 15, 6020 Innsbruck.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Wien, Rennweg 14, 1030 Wien.
Botanischer Garten und Arboretum der Stadt Linz, Bancalariweg 41, 4020 Linz.
Schlosspark Schénbrunn, Verwaltung der Bundesgarten, Schonbrunn, 1130 Wien.
Useful Addresses
Institut fiir Botanik und Botanischer Garten der Universitat Wien, Rennweg 14, 1030
Wien.
Institut fiir Umweltwissenschaften und Naturschutz, Osterreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Heinrichstrasse 5, 8010 Graz.
24
Austria
CITES Management Authority: Bundesministerium fiir Handel, Gewerbe und
Industrie, Abteilung II/3, Landstrasser Hauptstrasse 55-57, 1031 Wien.
Additional References
Fischer, M.A. (1976). Osterreichs Pflanzenwelt. Naturgeschichte Osterreichs. 104 pp.
(Vegetation descriptions; illus.)
Gutermann, W. and Niklfeld, H. (1974). Floristic report on Austria (1961-1971). Mem.
Soc. Brot. 24: 9-23.
Maurer, W. (1981). Die Pflanzenwelt der Steiermark. Verlag fiir Sammler, Graz.
147 pp. (Includes geology, climate, floristics, vegetation and species case-studies in
Steiermark Province; photographs; line drawings.)
Niklfeld, H. (1973). Uber Grundziige der Pflanzenverbreitung in Osterreich und einigen
Nachargebieten. Verh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. 113: 53-69.
Scharfetter, R. (1938). Das Pflanzenleben der Ostalpen. Wien. 419 pp. (Survey of
vegetation of eastern Alps, covering most of Austria.)
Wagner, H. (1956). Die Pflanzengeographische Gliederung Osterreichs. Mitt. Geogr.
Ges. Wien. 98(1): 78-92.
Wagner, H. (1971). Natiirliche Vegetation. In Bobek, H. (Ed.) Atlas der Republik
Osterreich. Map IV/3. Osterr. Akad. d. Wissensch. Freytag-Berndt and Artaria.
(Map of potential natural vegetation of Austria, 1: 100,000, with distribution maps
for 90 taxa, including endemics, at 1: 3,000,000.)
Wolkinger, F. et al. (1981). Die Natur- und Landschaftsschutz-gebiete Osterreichs.
Osterreichische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Umweltschutz, Wien.
Azores
A group of 9 volcanic islands (Flores, Corvo, Terceira, SAo Jorge, Pico, Faial, Graciosa,
Sao Miguel and Santa Maria) in the Atlantic Ocean, about 1500 km from Lisbon and 1900
from Newfoundland.
Area 2235 sq. km
Population 259,800 (1979 estimate, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics About 600 native plants, 55 endemic; many introduced exotics, some
harmful to the native flora (e.g. Pittosporum undulatum at low altitudes).
Vegetation Along the coast a cultivated zone, in which the shrub Myrica faya is
characteristic. At 500-1350 m is a zone of scrub woodland, dominated by Juniperus and
Erica, with Laurus, Ilex and other shrubs (Sjégren, 1973b). Laurel forest principally
remains in the Pico da Vara area on eastern Sao Miguel, but also in small areas on Pico,
Faial and Sado Jorge. |
Checklists and Floras The Azores are covered by the completed Flora Europaea
(Tutin et al., 1964-1980) and the Flora of Macaronesia checklist, both cited in Appendix 1.
Also relevant:
Fernandes, A. and R.B. (1980, 1983). Iconographia Selecta Florae Azoricae. 2 fascicles
so far. Conimbriga. (Descriptions and line drawings; only pteridophytes and
gymnosperms to date.)
25
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Franco, J.A. (1971- ). Nova Flora de Portugal (Continente e Acores). Sociedade
Astoria, Lisboa. 647 pp. (Incomplete, 1 vol. to date: Lycopodiaceae to
Umbelliferae; covers mainland Portugal and the Azores.)
Hansen, A. (1970). A Botanical Bibliography of the Azores. Copenhagen. Mimeo.
(Very comprehensive.)
Palhinha, R.T. (1966). Catalogo das Plantas Vasculares dos Agores. Sociedade de
Estudos Acorianas Afonso Chaves, Lisboa. 186 pp. (Annotated checklist.)
Sj6gren, E. (1973a). Vascular plants new to the Azores and to individual islands in the
Archipelago. Bol. Museu Municipal Funchal 27: 94-120. (New records since
Palhinha’s 1966 catalogue.)
For a floristic study see:
Pinto da Silva, A.R. (1963). L’étude de la flore vasculaire du Portugal continental et
des Acores les derniéres années (1955-1961). Webbia 18: 397-412.
Information on Threatened Plants The only known list is that produced by the
IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980) for North Africa and the Middle
East, cited in Appendix 1. Latest IUCN statistics, based on this work: endemic taxa -
Ex:1, V:5, R:18, 1:6, K:11, nt:14; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - V:1, R:2
(world categories).
Botanic Gardens IUCN/WWE have been asked by staff at the University of the
Azores to fund the creation of a small botanic garden on S4o Miguel in which endangered
plants would be propagated.
Additional References
Pinto da Silva, A.R. (1975). L’état actuel des connaissances floristiques et
taxonomiques du Portugal, de Madeére et des Acores, en ce qui concerne les plantes
vasculaires. In CNRS, 1975, cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 19-28.
Sjogren, E. (1973b). Recent changes in the vascular flora and vegetation of the Azores
Islands. Mem. Soc. Brot. 13. 453 pp. (Includes details on 414 taxa of vascular
plants.)
Sjogren, E. (1973c). Conservation of natural plant communities on Madeira and in the
Azores. In Proc. I Intern. Congress pro Flora Macaronesica. Pp. 148-153. (Not
seen.)
Tutin, T.G. (1953). The vegetation of the Azores. J. Ecol. 41(1): 53-61.
Tutin, T.G. and Warburg, E.F. (1964). A vegetacao dos Acores. Acoreana 6: 1-32.
Virville, A.D. de (1965). L’endémisme végétale dans les Iles Atlantides. Rev. Gén. Bot.
72 (857): 377-602.
Bahamas
A low-lying archipelago in a 1223 km long arc of the Atlantic Ocean, extending from the
coast of Florida on the north-west almost to Haiti on the south-east; 30 major islands, 661
cays and nearly 2400 rocks.
Area 13,864 sq. km
Population 221,000
26
Bahamas
Floristics 1350 species of vascular plants; 121 taxa (8.83%) endemic to the
archipelago (including Turks and Caicos islands) (Correll and Correll, 1982). Floristic
relationships are with Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola‘and Yucatan.
Vegetation Some open pine forest on Grand Bahama, Abaco, New Providence;
on the so-called Blackland soils, High and Low Coppice formations, the richest vegetation
type in the islands, but now greatly modified for agriculture; on the coast, coppice on sand
soils and stunted trees and shrubs on flat elevated rocks; some tidal flats and salt marshes;
mangrove in protected locations of lee shores in all the larger islands and cays. Vegetation
severely modified on the main islands (Correll and Correll, 1982). 23.2% forested (FAO,
1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras The Flora is:
Correll, D.S. and Correll, H.B. (1982). Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. Cramer,
FL-9490 Vaduz, Liechtenstein. 1692 pp. (715 illus. by Priscilla Fawcett; includes the
Turks and Caicos Islands.)
Also relevant:
Britton, N. and Millspaugh, C.F. (1920). The Bahama Flora. Lancaster. New Era
Printing Co., New York. 695 pp. (Reprinted 1962, by Hafner, New York.)
Patterson, J. and Stevenson, G. (1977). Native trees of the Bahamas. Privately
published. 128 pp. (Colour illus., map.)
Information on Threatened Plants No national Red Data Book. The only known
reference is:
Popenoe, J. (1984). Rare and threatened plants of the Bahamas. Threatened Plants
Newsletter No. 13: 11. (Lists 21 species considered to be rare or threatened.)
Voluntary Organizations
The Bahamas National Trust, Nassau.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Local
Government, P.O. Box N-3028, Nassau.
Additional References
Byrne, R. (1980). Man and the variable vulnerability of island life: a study of recent
vegetation change in the Bahamas. Afo/l Res. Bull. 240. 200 pp. (Illus., maps.)
Campbell, D.G. (1978). The Ephemeral Islands: A Natural History of the Bahamas.
Macmillan Education Ltd., London. 151 pp.
Coker, W.C. (1905). Vegetation of the Bahama Islands. In Shattuck, G.B., The
Bahama Islands. Geogr. Soc. Baltimore, John Hopkins Univ. Press. Pp. 185-270.
Gillis, W.T., Byrne, R. and Harrison, W. (1975). Bibliography of the natural history of
the Bahama Islands. \Afoll Res. Bull. 191: 1-123.
Howard, R.A. (1950). Vegetation of the Bimini Island group. Bahamas, B.W.I. Ecol.
Monogr. 20(4): 317-349.
Taylor, N. (1921). Endemism in the Bahama flora. Ann. Bot. 35: 523-532.
27
Bahrain
A small island sheikdom of one island with several smaller satellite islands c. 30 km from
the coast of Saudi Arabia about half way down the southern shore of the Persian Gulf,
26°N 50°30’E.
Area 661 sq. km
Population 414,000
Floristics Flora small, no endemics known; according to Good (1955), unlikely to
be much over 175 species of vascular plants. Virgo (1980) quotes collecting lists of between
70 and 200 species. Affinities with the flora of Iraq.
Vegetation Mostly desert plant communities, with many sub-halophytic species.
Two other localized communities: adventive flora of date gardens in cultivated northern
part of island; halophytic vegetation of muddy shores (salt marsh and mangrove swamp).
Checklists and Floras
Bellamy, D.A. (1984). Additional flowering plants of Bahrain. In Hill, M. and
Nightingale, T. (Eds), Wildlife in Bahrain. Third Biennial Report of the Bahrain
Natural History Society. Pp. 90-96. (Additions to the checklist of Virgo, 1980; with
4 colour photographs.)
Good, R. (1955). The flora of Bahrain. In Dickson, V., The Wild Flowers of Kuwait
and Bahrain. Allen and Unwin, London. Pp. 126-140. (Includes account of
vegetation and checklist of vascular plants.)
Virgo, K.J. (1980). An introduction to the vegetation of Bahrain. In Hallam, T.J.
(Ed.), Wildlife in Bahrain. Bahrain Natural History Society Annual Reports for
1978-1979, Bahrain Natural History Society. Pp. 65-109. (Includes an annotated and
illustrated checklist of the flora.)
Most of the plants of Bahrain are included in the Flora of Saudi Arabia (Migahid, 1978,
cited under Saudi Arabia). Descriptions of 86 plants recorded, mostly from the north, are
given in Virgo (1980), see above.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Voluntary Organizations
Bahrain Natural History Society, P.O. Box 20336, Manama.
Additional References
Vesey-Fitzgerald, D.F. (1957). The vegetation of central and eastern Arabia. J. Ecol.
45: 779-798. (With four black and white photographs and small-scale vegetation
map.)
Zakis, M.M. (Ed.) (1978). Comprehensive Study of Plant Ecology and Investigation
into Possibility of Establishing a Botanic Garden in Bahrain. Univ. Arab. States,
Khartoum. (In Arabic; cited by Virgo, 1980.)
28
Bangladesh
Area 143,998 sq. km
Population 98,464,000
Floristics c. 5000 angiosperm species (Khan and Hug, 1972). The flora is mainly
related to that of India; however, the flora of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts is
more related to that of Indo-China (S. Khan, 1984, in Jitt.).
Vegetation Mostly low-lying alluvial plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra river
systems with extensive marsh and sedge-land, much of the plains under rice and jute
cultivation. Tropical semi-evergreen rain forest, on Chittagong hills in the south-east and
in Sylhet; tropical moist semi-evergreen Sal (Shorea robusta) forest north of Dhaka, now
mostly secondary. Extensive mangroves in the Sunderbans region at the mouth of Ganges,
covering 6000 sq. km, the largest such tract in the world (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix
1). Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forests 80 sq. km/annum out of
a total of 9270 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1)
includes the tropical forests of Bangladesh as ‘‘undergoing broad-scale conversion at rapid
rates’’ and predicts little forest could be left ‘‘by 1990 if not earlier’’.
Checklists and Floras
Datta, R.N. and Mitra, J.N. (1953). Common plants in and around Dacca. Bull. Bot.
Soc. Bengal 7: 1-110. (Keys and descriptions of plants found in 16 km radius from
Dhaka.)
Khan, S. and Huq, A.M. (Eds) (1972). Flora of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Agric. Res.
Council, Dhaka. (27 fascicles to date covering 34 small families; no. 4 includes notes
on vegetation types.)
Prain, D. (1903). Bengal Plants, 2 vols. Calcutta. (Reprinted by Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta, 1963.)
Prain, D. (1903). Flora of the Sundribuns. Rec. Bot. Survey India 2: 231-370.
Bangladesh is also covered by the Flora of British India (Hooker, 1872-1897), cited in
Appendix 1. For ferns see Beddome (1892) and the companion volume by Nayar and Kaur
(1972), both of which are cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants IUCN has a preliminary list of 35 threatened
plants, prepared in 1984 by S. Khan, Bangladesh National Herbarium.
Botanic Gardens
Baldah Garden, Wari, Dhaka.
Mirpur Botanic Garden, Dhaka.
Useful Addresses
Bangladesh National Herbarium, 229 Green Road, Dhaka.
CITES Management Authority: The Chief Conservator of Forests, Government of
Bangladesh, Bana Bhaban, Gulshan Road, Mohakhali, Dhaka-12.
29
Barbados
Barbados, 33.8 km long and 22.5 km broad, is the most easterly of the Caribbean islands.
It is low-lying, coral and fertile, with a dense population and intensively cultivated for
sugar cane.
Area 430 sq. km
Population 262,000
Floristics c. 700 native species, 6 endemic; over 10,000 introduced species and
hybrids, many of which have become naturalized (National Conservation Commission,
1984, pers. comm.).
Vegetation Almost the entire island has been modified for cultivation, grazing
and development; a few patches of coastal woodland remain as do a few isolated areas of
mangrove swamp vegetation at Graeme Hall and St Lawrence; the greatest variety of
plants on Barbados are in steep clefts in the upper coralline levels (the Gullies); sparse
climbing xerophytic vegetation on rocky land and inland cliffs; dune vegetation of grass
and sandy bushland of low shrub and trees nearly to the sea.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and
Windward Islands (only monocotyledons and ferns published so far; Howard, 1974- ),
and by the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica. (Both are cited in
Appendix 1). The Island’s Flora is:
Gooding, E.G.B., Loveless, A.R. and Proctor, G.R. (1965). Flora of Barbados.
H.M.S.O., London. 486 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Voluntary Organizations
Caribbean Conservation Association, Savannah Lodge, The Garrison, St Michael.
National Conservation Commission, Codrington House, P.O. Box 807E, St Michael.
The Barbados National Trust, Ronald Tree House, No. 2, 10th Avenue, Belleville,
St Michael.
Botanic Gardens
Andromeda Gardens, St Joseph.
Farley Hill National Park, St Peter.
Welchman Hall Gully, St Thomas.
Useful Addresses
The Bellairs Research Institute, McGill University, St James.
Additional References
Gooding, E.G.B. (1974). The Plant Communities of Barbados. Ministry of Education,
Barbados. 243 pp.
30
Belgium
Area 30,519 sq. km
Population 9,877,000
Floristics 1600-1800 native vascular plant species, estimated by D.A. Webb
(1978, cited in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; c. 1300 according to J.-P. d’Huart (in
litt., 1984). One extinct endemic (IUCN figure).
Vegetation Little natural vegetation. Relicts of acid oakwoods and oak/beech-
woods with birch in the north and east. In central Belgium original beechwoods now
largely replaced by agriculture but with occasional patches of coppiced oak and hornbeam.
Dry grassland drastically reduced; remaining pockets in south and east on sandy and
calcareous soils. Some extensive areas of raised bog and moor survive in the east. Salt-
marshes and dunes, once extensive along north coast, have almost completely been
destroyed.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). Selected national and regional Floras:
De Langhe, J.-E. et al. (1983). Nouvelle Flore de la Belgique, du Grand-Duché de
Luxembourg, du Nord de la France et des Régions Voisines, 3rd Ed. Jardin
Botanique National de Belgique, Meise. 1100 pp. (Ferns and flowering plants.)
Robyns, W. (Ed.) (1950- ). Flore Générale de Belgique, several parts. Ministére de
l’Agriculture, Jardin Botanique de L’Etat, Bruxelles. (Incomplete; ferns,
gymnosperms, angiosperms to Thymelaeaceae, by A. Lawalrée; maps; illus.)
Atlas:
Rompaey, E. van and Delvosalle, L. (1978-1979). Atlas de la flore Belge et
Luxembourgeoise, Ptéridophtyes et Spermatophytes, 2nd Ed., 2 vols. Jardin
Botanique National de Belgique, Bruxelles. 116 pp; 293 pp; 1542 maps. (Distribution
maps of majority of Belgian vascular plants, except the most widespread; 4 sq. km
grid and explanatory text.)
National botanical journal: Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique,
Brussels.
Field-guides
De Sloover, J. and Goossens, M. (1981). Guide des Herbes Sauvages. Duculot,
Gembloux. 217 pp.
Tercafs, R. and Thiernesse, E. (1978). Guide Nature de l’Ardenne. Duculot,
Gembloux. 400 pp.
See also: Fitter, Fitter and Blamey (1974), cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Aechmea Plants One of the first countries to publish a national
plant Red Data Book:
Delvosalle, L., Demaret, F., Lambinon, J. and Lawalrée, A. (1969). Plantes Rares,
Disparues ou Menacées de Disparition en Belgique: L’Appauvrissement de la Flore
Indigéne. Ministére de |’ Agriculture, Service des Réserves Naturelles domaniales et
de la Conservation de la Nature, No. 4. 129 pp. (Lists over 300 extinct and
threatened vascular plants, and 148 threatened bryophytes; describes threats to the
flora; maps.)
31
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Other references:
D’Hose, R. and De Langhe, J.E. (1974- ). Nieuwe Groeiplaatsen van zeldzame Planten
in Belgié (New locations of rare plants in Belgium). Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg.
107(1): 107-114. (Numerous papers in Dutch, starting with that given.)
Delvosalle, L. and Vanhecke, L. (1982). Essai du notation quantitative de la raréfaction
d’espéces aquatiques et palustres en Belgique entre 1960 et 1980. In Symoens, J.J.,
Hooper, S.S. and Compére, P. (Eds), Studies on Aquatic Vascular Plants,
Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Aquatic Vascular Plants, 23-25
January 1981, Brussels. Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Pp. 403-409. (Quantifies the decline of aquatic and marsh plants using floristical
data gathered by the Institut Floristique Belgo-Luxembourgeois.)
Lawalrée, A. (1971). L’appauvrissement de la flore belge. Bull. Jard. Bot. Nat. Belg.
41: 167-171.
Petit, J. (1979). Chromique de la Montagne Saint-Pierre: 2. Un liste rouge de plantes
menacées. Rev. Vervietoise Hist. Nat. 36(7-9): 54-57.
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - Ex:1; non-
endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:2, V:5, R:2, I:1 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which includes data sheets on 4 Endangered plants in Belgium.
In spring 1984 WWF-Belgium launched a national Plants Campaign in the Jardin
Botanique National de Belgique, Meise, as part of their contribution to the International
IUCN/WWF Plants Programme 1984-85. Further details available from WWF-Belgium
and the Garden (addresses below).
Laws Protecting Plants National legislation in 1976 (Arrété royal du 16 février
1976 relatif aux mesures de protection en faveur de certaines espéces végétales croissant a
l’état sauvage) provides complete protection for 45 plant taxa and all Lycopodiaceae.
Partial protection is given to a further 22 species and selected genera and families. For
details see:
Lawalrée, A. (1981). Plantes sauvages protegées en Belgique. Jardin Botanique
National de Belgique, Meise. 32 pp. (Describes habitats and threats of 64 protected
species; colour photographs.)
Voluntary Organizations
Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Domaine de Bouchout, 1860 Meise.
WWYF-Belgium, Chaussée de Waterloo 608, 1060 Brussels.
Botanic Gardens
Arboretum Geographique de Tervuren, Administration de la Donation Royale, Avenue
du Derby 57, 1050 Bruxelles.
Arboretum Kalmthout, Weidestraat 60, 2600 Berchem.
Jardin Botanique National de Belgique, Domaine de Bouchout, 1860 Meise.
Jardin Botanique de l’Université de Liége, Sart Tilman, 4000 Liége.
Jardin Experimental Jean Massart, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Chaussée de Wavre
1850, 1160 Bruxelles.
Plantentuin der Rijksuniversiteit, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent.
Station de Recherches des Eaux et Foréts, 1990 Groenendaal-Hoeilaart.
32
Belgium
Useful Addresses
Centre d’Education pour la Protection de la Nature, Rue de la Paix 83, 6168 Chapelle-
lez Herlaimont.
Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Rue Vautier 31, 1040 Bruxelles.
Ministére de l’Agriculture, Service de la Protection des Végétaux, Manhattan Centre,
21 Avenue du Boulevard, 1000 Brussels.
TRAFFIC-Belgium, WWF-Belgium, see above.
Additional References
Lawalrée, A. (1963). Apercu sur l’étude de la flore vasculaire de la Belgique depuis
1945. Webbia 18: 107-127.
Lawalrée, A. (1978). Introduction a la Flore de la Belgique. Jardin Botanique National
de Belgique, Meise. 67 pp. (Descriptive account; black and white photographs.)
Noirfalise, A. (1971). La conservation des biocoénoses en Belgique. Bull. Jard. Bot.
Nat. Belg. 41: 219-230.
Tanghe, M. (1975). Atlas de Belgique: Phytogéographie (Commentaire). Vaillant-
Carmanne, Liége. 75 pp. (Detailed vegetation account with line drawings.)
Vanden Berghen, C. (1982). Initiation a l’étude de la végétation, 3rd Ed. Jardin
Botanique National de Belgique, Meise. 263 pp. 134 figs.
Vanhecke, L. and Charlier, G. (1982). The regression of aquatic and marsh vegetation
and habitats in the north of Belgium between 1904 and 1980: some photographic
evidence. In Symoens, J.J., Hooper, S.S. and Compére, P. (Eds), Studies on
Aquatic Vascular Plants, Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Aquatic
Vascular Plants, 23-25 January 1981, Brussels. Société Royale de Botanique de
Belgique, Brussels. Pp. 410-411.
Belize
Area 22,963 sq. km
Population 156,000
Floristics Toledo (1985, cited in Appendix 1), from published checklists, quotes
3240 species of vascular plants. (Gentry, 1978, cited in Appendix 1, quoting D.L.
Spellman, pers. comm., had estimated 2500-3000 species.) 150 endemic species (IUCN
figures). Flora is similar to that of the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico and of Petén in
Guatemala.
Vegetation Over most of the country, broadleaved rain forest; in the northern
half, where rainfall is lower, sometimes called semi- or quasi-rain forest; on river banks
and in lowlands forest of Cohune palm (Orbignya cohune) associated with mahogany
Swietenia macrophylla, which has been exploited almost to extinction; most of the rain
forest is secondary due to effect of Mayan and present civilizations (D’Arcy, 1977); on the
poor soils of the coastal plain and interior up to 1000 m, savannas and pine forests, mainly
of Pinus caribaea; on the coast wet savannas and mangrove. Estimated rate of
deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 90 sq. km/annum out of 12,570 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981); this is similar to the NAS estimate that ‘‘some 11,000 sq. km may
still support good-quality forest, albeit subject to some disruption through light-impact
timber harvesting’’ (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1).
33
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras Belize is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project,
described in Appendix 1, and by the completed Flora of Guatemala and related articles in
Fieldiana (cited under Guatemala), as well as by the family and generic monographs of
Flora Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). Country Floras and checklists are:
Dwyer, J.D. and Spellman, D.L. (1981). A list of the Dicotyledoneae of Belize.
Rhodora 83: 161-236.
Spellman, D.L., Dwyer, J.D. and Davidse, G. (1975). A list of the Monocotyledoneae
of Belize including a historical introduction to plant collection in Belize. Rhodora
77(809): 105-140. (Collections since 1959 with annotations for new country records.)
Standley, P.C. and Record, S.J. (1936). The forests and flora of British Honduras.
Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 12: 1-432. (Description of forest types and
annotated species list; 1981 angiosperms and gymnosperms, 134 pteridophytes.)
Williams, L.O. (1956). An enumeration of the Orchidaceae of Central America, British
Honduras, and Panama. Ceiba 5: 1-256. (List of 97 species from Belize.)
See also:
Carnegie Institute of Washington (1936-1940). Botany of the Maya Region:
Miscellaneous Papers 1-21. Washington, D.C. 2 vols. 802 pp.
Fosberg, F.R., Stoddart, D.R., Sachet, M.-H. and Spellman, D.L. (1982). Plants of
the Belize Cays. Atoll Research Bull. 258. 77 pp. (Annotated checklist of 182 species
of vascular plants.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The list of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa — R:6, I:1, K:141, nt:2; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide -
E:1, V:5, R:6, I:6 (world categories).
Threatened plants are mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104) and J.T. Mickel on rare
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328).
Voluntary Organizations
Belize Audubon Society, P.O. Box 101, Belmopan. (Membership includes
knowledgeable botanists.)
Useful Addresses
CITES implementation: Chief Forest Officer, Department of Forestry, Ministry of
Natural Resources, Belmopan. (Note: Belize adheres to CITES, but is not
considered a Party because it has not separately ratified the Convention since
independence from the U.K. in 1981.)
Additional References
Hartshorn, G. et al. (1984). Belize: Country Environmental Profile. R. Nicolait &
Assoc., Belize City. 2 parts - Executive Summary (8 pp.) and Field Study (151 pp.).
(Latter contains list of tree species by G. Hartshorn (pp. 146-151) derived from
works cited under Floras and Checklists, above, augmented by personal
observations.)
Lundell, C.L. (1945). The vegetation and natural resources of British Honduras. In
Verdoorn, F. (Ed.) (1945), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 270-273. (Includes vegetation
map.)
34
Belize
Romney, D.H. (Ed.) (1959). Land in British Honduras. Colonial Research Publications
no. 24, HMSO, London. 327 pp.
Benin
Area 112,622 sq. km
Population 3,890,000
Floristics c. 2000 species (H. Ern, 1984, in /itt.); 11 endemic (Brenan, 1978, cited
in Appendix 1).
Floristic affinities predominantly Sudanian; in southernmost third of country affinities
Sudanian and Guinea-Congolian.
Vegetation Mostly Sudanian woodland with Isoberlinia, with a small area of
Sudanian woodland without characteristic dominants in extreme north, and, in the south,
lowland rain forest interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivation. In eastern Benin
there is semi-deciduous rain forest, but this is now represented only by some very small
reserves. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 12 sq. km/annum
out of 470 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Benin is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa,
cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedberg, I. (Ed.) (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Benin, pp. 91-92, by E.J.
Adjanohoun, contains 48 species threatened in Benin: E:10, V:20, R:18.)
IUCN has records of 13 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no
categories given.
Botanic Gardens
University Botanic Garden, Abomey-Calavi, near Cotonou.
Useful Addresses
Ministére du Développement Rural et de l’Environnement, Cotonou.
Université Nationale du Bénin, Herbier National du Bénin, B.P. 526, Cotonou.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Direction des Eaux, Foérets et Chasse,
Ministére des Fermes d’Etat, d’Elevage et de la Péche, B.P. 393, Cotonou.
Additional References
Adjakidje, V. (1984). Contribution a l’étude botanique des savanes guinéennes de la
République Populaire du Bénin. Unpublished thesis, University of Bordeaux.
Adjanohoun, E. (1968). Le Dahomey. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix
1. Pp. 86-91.
Akoegninou, A. (1984). Contribution a |’étude botanique des ilots de foréts denses
humides semi-décidues en République Populaire du Bénin. Unpublished thesis,
University of Bordeaux.
Aubréville, A. (1937). Les foréts du Dahomey et du Togo. Bull. Com. Etud. Hist.
Scient. Afr. Occid. Fr. 20. 112 pp. (With 18 black and white photographs.)
35
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Paradis, G. (1983). A phytogeographic survey of southern Benin. In Killick, D.J.B.
(1983), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 579-585.
Bermuda
The Bermudas or Somers islands comprise 100 small limestone islands, c. 20 of them
inhabited, in the west of the Atlantic Ocean, 917 km east of the coast of North Carolina,
U.S.A. They are a self-governing dependent territory of the United Kingdom.
Area 54 sq. km
Population 54,670
Floristics 146 native species of flowering plants and 19 species of ferns, with
8.7% endemism (Britton, 1918). 17 endemic species recorded by B. Phillips, see below.
Affinities with both the Old World Tropics and the Neotropics.
Vegetation Most of the vegetation has been modified; only small areas of natural
vegetation remain, e.g. Paget and Devonshire marsh and the upland hills of Castle
Harbour and Walsingham. Originally the endemic Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus
bermudiana) was dominant, but 96% of its population was devastated by an introduced
scale insect in 1942. A few mature trees survived and pockets of young Bermuda cedars are
re-emerging in protected areas. To compensate, many exotic trees and shrubs were
introduced in the 1950s and 1960s. Areas of protected mangroves exist in tidal inlets and
around some sheltered bays. (B. Phillips, 1984, in litt.)
Checklists and Floras
Britton, N. (1918). Flora of Bermuda. Scribners, New York. 585 pp. (Illustrations and
list of endemic species.)
Field-guides
Curtis, E.W. (1978). Bermuda - a floral sampler. Privately published. 54 pp. (Includes
note on conservation, drawn illus., photographs.)
Information on Threatened Plants The IUCN Plant Red Data Book has one data
sheet for Bermuda, on Juniperus bermudiana. In 1981, B. Phillips, of the Bermuda
Department of Agriculture, prepared a set of data sheets on 30 Bermudan plants, 17
endemic, 2 of them mosses.
Laws Protecting Plants Tree Preservation Orders and Woodland Preservation
Orders are used to protect areas of natural beauty or specimen trees. All remaining
mangroves are so protected.
Voluntary Organizations
Bermuda Aquarium, Natural History Museum and Zoo (BAMZ), Conservation
Volunteers, P.O. Box FL 145, Flatts, Smith’s 3.
Bermuda National Trust, P.O. Box 61, Hamilton 5.
Walsingham Trust, Hamilton Paris.
Botanic Gardens
The Bermuda Botanical Gardens, Point Finger Road, Paget East.
36
Bermuda
Useful Addresses
Conservation Officer, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, P.O. Box 834,
Hamilton 5.
Additional References
Hayward, S.J., Gomez, V.H. and Sterrer, W. (Eds) (1981). Bermuda’s delicate
balance: People and environment. The Bermuda National Trust. 402 pp.
Bhutan
Area 46,620 sq. km
Population 1,388,000
Floristics Provisional estimate of 5000 vascular plant species (D. Long, 1984, in
litt.). Country endemism very low, but 10-15% endemic to Eastern Himalayas. The
subtropical flora has affinities with that of S.E. Asia, the temperate flora with that of
China and Japan; Tibetan and Euro-Siberian species are also present (Grierson and Long,
1983).
Vegetation Tropical semi-evergreen forests in lowlands, temperate forests and
scrub at high altitudes. Subtropical and tropical moist deciduous forests predominantly of
Sal (Shorea robusta) on southern foothills of Himalayas at 200-1000 m, almost totally
destroyed at low altitudes; warm temperate broadleaved forest at 1000-2000 m (some
cleared for agriculture and timber); xerophytic Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest in deep
dry valleys at 900-1800 m; cool temperate broadleaved forest at 2000-2900 m with
evergreen Quercus and Castanopsis in drier areas, replaced by mixed forest in wetter areas;
evergreen oak forest in central Bhutan, especially around Tongsa and on the hills above
Mongar, between 1800-2600 m; various types of coniferous forests to 3800 m;
juniper/rhododendron scrub and dry alpine scrub up to 4600 m (Grierson and Long,
1983). Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forests 10 sq. km/annum out
of a total of 14,900 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Most clearance has taken place in the rich
subtropical belt (Long, in /itt.).
Checklists and Floras Bhutan is included in the Flora of Eastern Himalaya
(1966- ) and the Flora of British India (Hooker, 1872-1879), both of which are cited in
Appendix 1.
Grierson, A.J.C. and Long, D.G. (1980). A Provisional Checklist of the Trees and
Major Shrubs (Excluding Woody Climbers) of Bhutan and Sikkim. Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh. 51 pp.
Grierson, A.J.C. and Long, D.G. (1983- ). Flora of Bhutan: Including a Record of
Plants from Sikkim. Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. (2 parts so far. Vol. 1(1) -
vegetation, phytogeography, botanical bibliography of Bhutan and Sikkim;
taxonomic treatments of all gymnosperms and 16 angiosperm families from
Myricaceae to Polygonaceae; 1(2) - Phytolaccaceae-Moringaceae, 40 families.)
Subramanyam, K. (Ed.) (1983). Materials for the Flora of Bhutan. Records Bot.
Survey India 22(2). 278 pp. (Enumeration of c. 200 vascular plants; notes on
distribution, uses.)
37
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
There is additional information on the Bhutan flora, with newly described species, in the
series ‘Notes relating to the flora of Bhutan’ in Notes Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
Published parts - 36: 139-150 (1978); 37: 341-354 (1979); 38: 297-310 (1980); 38: 311-314
(1980); 40: 115-138 (1982).
Information on Threatened Plants None, except for:
Sahni, K.C. (1979). Endemic, relict, primitive and spectacular taxa in eastern
Himalayan flora and strategies for their conservation. Indian J. Forestry 2(2):
181-190. (Mentions 30 taxa rare or threatened in the Himalayan region, including
Bhutan; notes on vegetation.)
Additional References For useful background information on the Himalayan
region see Lall and Moddie (1981), cited in Appendix 1.
Bismarck Archipelago
The Bismarck Archipelago, politically a part of Papua New Guinea, is situated east of the
island of New Guinea, in the Bismarck Sea, south-west Pacific Ocean. The Bismarcks
comprise volcanic islands, raised coral islands and low coral reefs. Area 49,658 sq. km (of
which New Britain, the largest island, is 36,500 sq. km).
The vegetation consists of lowland tropical rain forest, extensive on New Britain; the lower
limit of montane rain forest is 900 m (Whitmore, 1984, cited in Appendix 1); Nothofagus
abundant between 1500-2800 m, in parts of central New Britain and eastern New Ireland;
swamp forests with Campnosperma and Terminalia on coastal north-central New Britain;
mangroves in north New Britain, New Ireland and New Hanover. Atoll/beach forest and
large areas of coastal grasslands on New Britain. Bamboo and cloud forest probably
present (Dahl, 1980, cited in Appendix 1).
The Bismarck Archipelago is included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis,
1958) and on the vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora
Malesiana region at scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1.
No recent figure for size of flora. No information on threatened plants.
References
Peekel, G. E. (1947). Illustrierte Flora des Bismarck-Archipels fiir Naturfreunde.
(Unpublished ms, Lae.)
Schumann, K. and Lauterbach, K. (1901, 1905). Die Flora der Deutschen Schutzgebiete
in der Siidsee, 2 vols. Leipzig. (Also covers north-east New Guinea; in German.)
Wagner, W.H., Jr. and Grether, D.F. (1948). The pteridophytes of the Admiralty
Islands. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 23(2): 17-110. (Keys, annotated enumeration,
mainly covering Manus Island, with notes on localities, habitats, frequency.)
38
Bolivia
Based upon material by J.C. Solomon
Area 1,098,575 sq. km
Population 6,200,000
Floristics Estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 species, of which about 9000 recorded so
far, reflecting the great diversity of vegetation in Bolivia (J.C. Solomon, 1984, pers.
comm.). Probably the least collected country in South America (Prance, 1977). Floristic
affinities with neighbouring countries: the upland Central Andean flora with Peru and
Chile, the north-east flora with Brazilian Amazonia, the Pampus with Argentina, and the
Chaco with Paraguay. Endemism uncertain but likely to be highest in the eastern Andean
slopes (Yungas) and interior valleys (Solomon, pers. comm.).
Vegetation The Andes, stretching down western Bolivia, fall into three regions:
the western Cordilleras (adjoining the Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru) with high alpine
vegetation; the eastern Cordilleras, similar alpine vegetation but interspersed with
temperate valleys; between them, at 3400-4300 m, cold semi-arid steppe (the Altiplano)
dominated by low puna grassland with low shrubs, the northern part mostly cultivated. On
the eastern flanks of the Eastern Cordilleras are very steep valleys with montane moist to
pluvial forest and cloud forest (the Yungas); further south subtropical evergreen forest
(the Tucumano-Boliviana forest); both these vegetation types lead into the evergreen
seasonal lowland forest of the north-east, abutting Brazilian Amazonia; this extends
650,000 sq. km (9.1% of the total Amazon forest) (Unesco, 1981, cited in Appendix 1). In
Santa Cruz (south-central Bolivia) are Pampas; in the south-east corner is the impenetrable
thorn scrub and swamp of the Chaco Boreal, the northernmost part of the Gran Chaco of
Argentina and Paraguay. In the extreme east this abuts the Pantanal of Brazil and
Paraguay.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 870 sq. km/annum out of
440,100 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Bolivia is covered by the family and generic monographs of
Flora Neotropica, described in Appendix 1. Country accounts include:
Adolfo, H. (1962, 1966). Plantas del valle de Cochabamba. Editorial Canelas,
Cochabamba. 2 fascicles.
Foster, R.C. (1958). A catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of Bolivia. Contr.
Gray Herb. 184: 1-223. (196 families listed.)
Foster, R.C. (1966). Studies in the Flora of Bolivia - IV. Gramineae. Rhodora 68:
97-120, 223-358.
Hitchcock, A.S. (1927). The grasses of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Contr. U.S. Nat.
Herb. 24(8): 291-556.
Kempff, N. (1976). Flora Amazonica Boliviana. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de
Bolivia, La Paz. 71 pp.
Standley, P.C. (1931). The Rubiaceae of Bolivia. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 7(3):
255-339.
Vasquez, R. and Dodson, C. (1982). Orchids of Bolivia. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum
6: 501-600. (Descriptions, illustrations, dot maps.)
The Missouri Botanical Garden and the Bolivian Academy of Sciences, through the
Bolivian National Museum of Natural History, began a long-term floristic study of Bolivia
39
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
in 1981. The first phases are a 3-year survey of two valleys above 1000 m in the Yungas
near La Paz and an inventory of the Tariquia Podocarpus forest.
Information on Threatened Plants Four species are listed as threatened in
Organizacién de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited in Appendix 1, whereas a further 9
are listed in the annex to the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation
in the Western Hemisphere (1940). Also relevant:
Ravenna, P. (1977). Neotropical species threatened and endangered by human activity
in Iridaceae, Amaryllidaceae and allied bulbous families. In Prance, G.T. and Elias,
T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 257-266.
Laws Protecting Plants Ley General Forestal de la Nacién (Decreto 22686 of 13
August 1974), which covers the management and exploitation of forest resources and
provided for the creation of the Centro Desarrollo Forestal (CDF) to administer Bolivian
forestry, contains provisions that relate to forest inventories as well as to the creation of
protected areas (Solomon, pers. comm.).
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacién Boliviana Pro-Defensa de la Naturaleza (PRODENA), Casilla 989, La Paz.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico de Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Casilla 123, Santa Cruz.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Martin Cardenas’’, Casilla 538, Cochabamba.
Useful Addresses
Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Cajon Postal 20127, La Paz.
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Casilla 5829, La Paz.
CITES Management Authority: Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios,
Centro de Desarrollo Forestal, Jefatura Nacional de Vida Silvestre, Parques
Nacionales, Caza y Pesca, Av. Camacho 1471 6° Piso, Casilla de Correa No. 1862,
La Paz.
Additional References
Aliaga de Vizcarra, I. (1978). Bibliografia Boliviana de Recursos Vegetales. Academia
Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz. 14 pp.
Beck, S. (1982). Inventario y estudio de la flora Boliviana. Ecologia en Bolivia 1:
14-21. (New journal; back cover contains simplified map of ‘ecoregions’ of Bolivia.)
Cardenas, M. (1969). Manual de Plantas Econémicas de Bolivia. Imprenta Ichtus,
Cochabamba. 421 pp. (Not seen.)
Freeman, P.H., Cross, B., Flannery, R.D., Harcharik, D.A., Hartshorn, G.S.,
Simmonds, G. and Williams, J.D. (1980). Bolivia: State of the environment and
natural resources, a field study. US-AID contract PDC-C-Q247. (Unpaged.)
Herzog, T. (1923). Die Pflanzenwelt der bolivischen Anden und ihres 6stlichen
Vorlandes. In Engler, A. and Drude, O. (Eds), Die Vegetation der Erde, 15.
Leipzig. 258 pp.
Prance, G. (1977). Floristic inventory of the tropics: Where do we stand? Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 64(4): 659-684.
Tosi, J., Unzueta, O., Holdridge, L. and Gonzalez, A. (1975). Mapa Ecolédgico de
Bolivia. Ministerio de Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios, La Paz.
Unzueta, O. (1975). Memoria Explicativa: Mapa Ecol6égico de Bolivia. Ministerio de
Asuntos Campesinos y Agropecuarios, La Paz. 312 pp.
J.C. Solomon, at Missouri Botanical Garden, has compiled an extensive bibliography on
the botany of Bolivia.
40
Botswana
Area 575,000 sq. km
Population 1,042,000
Floristics Number of species unknown. Brenan (1978, cited in Appendix 1)
estimates 17 endemic species, from a sample of Flora Zambesiaca.
Split between Zambezian (north-eastern third of country), and Kalahari-Highveld regions.
Vegetation Mostly Kalahari Acacia wooded grassland and deciduous bushland
(south-west), and Zambezian woodland without characteristic dominants (north-east),
with a wide transition band between the two. In extreme south-west an area of sand-dunes
with sparse grassland or wooded grassland. The Okavango delta in the north is occupied
by herbaceous swamp and aquatic vegetation, while the Makarikari depression is
surrounded by halophytic vegetation.
For vegetation maps see Wild and Barbosa (1967, 1968), and White (1983), both cited in
Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Botswana is included in the incomplete Flora Zambesiaca,
cited in Appendix 1.
Miller, O.B. (1952). The Woody Plants of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Reprinted
from the J. S. Afr. Bot. 18. National Botanic Gardens of South Africa,
Kirstenbosch. 100 pp. (Corrigenda in J. S. Afr. Bot. 19:177-182.) (Short
descriptions, specimen citations.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hall, A.V. et al. (1980), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Botswana on p. 79 contains 15
non-endemic species and infraspecific taxa - V:1 (regional category), R:6, K:8.)
Useful Addresses
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: Ministry of Agriculture (Parks and
Nature Conservation), Private Bag 003, Gaborone.
Additional References
Simpson, C.D. (1975). A detailed vegetation study on the Chobe River in noxth-east
Botswana. Kirkia 10: 185-227.
Weare, P.R. and Yalala, A. (1971). Provisional vegetation map of Botswana. Botswana
Notes Rec. 3: 131-147. (With vegetation map in colour.)
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Wild, H. (1968). Bechuanaland Protectorate. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 198-202.
——
Bougainville
Bougainville is an island group, politically part of Papua New Guinea, situated north-west
of the Solomon Islands in the south-west Pacific Ocean. Area 10,619 sq. km; population
77,880 (1970 census, Times Atlas, 1983). Bougainville, the largest island, reaches 2743 m at
Mt Balbis. Large areas in the south have freshwater swamp forests. Bougainville also has
lowland ridge forest, mixed lowland rain forest, mangroves, coastal forests (with
41
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Calophyllum, Casuarina and Terminalia), secondary scrub and grasslands (Foreman,
1971). No figure for size of flora. No information on threatened plants.
References
Foreman, D.B. (1971). A Check List of the Vascular Plants of Bougainville with
Descriptions of Some Common Forest Trees. Botany Bull. no. 5. Dept of Forests,
Lae. 194 pp. (List of herbarium specimens; 58 trees described with line drawings.)
Heyligers, P.C. (1967). Vegetation and ecology of Bougainville and Buka Islands.
CSIRO Land Resources Series 20: 121-145.
Thorne, A. and Cribb, P. (1984). Orchids of the Solomon Islands and Bougainville: a
preliminary checklist. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 33 pp. (Compiled from
herbarium and literature records at Kew.)
Bounty Islands
The Bounty Islands (1.3 sq. km) are an outlying island group of New Zealand, consisting
of about 13 rocky islets, stacks and wave-lashed rocks in the Pacific subantarctic, at
47°40’S, 179°10’E. No human interference. No vascular species (D. Given, 1984, in litt.).
Brazil
Area 8,511,965 sq. km
Population 132,648,000
Floristics Prance (1979) estimates over 55,000 species of flowering plants,
considerably more than any other country in the world; of these, 25,000 to 30,000 occur
only in Amazonia (G. Prance, pers. comm., quoted in Gentry, 1977, cited under Ecuador);
in Bahia alone there are 129 genera and 850-950 species of Leguminosae (G. Lewis, 1984,
pers. comm.).
Vegetation The main vegetation types of this vast country are Amazon rain
forests, Caatinga, Cerrado, Pantanal and Atlantic coastal forests.
The Brazilian part of the Amazon forest covers 5,057,490 sq. km (Prance, 1979), 63% of
the total Amazon forest and nearly 60% of Brazil; the largest extent of primary tropical
rain forest in the world and botanically the least known part of Brazil; species composition
very varied; besides the forests on high, non-flooded ground (‘‘terra firme’’), which
occupies 90% of the area, are ‘‘savannas, Amazonian campinas on white sand, campina
... forests of the upper Rio Negro, swamp forest, transition forest, and montane forest’’
(Prance, 1977).
In the northeast is the caatinga, a semi-arid region dominated by succulents, drought-
resistant deciduous thorny trees and shrubs. Central Brazil is mainly cerrado, which varies
from dense evergreen lowland forest to medium-tall grassland with broadleaved evergreen
trees; on the mountain chain up east central Brazil, above 900 m, is the floristically rich
Campo Rupeste, mainly herbaceous vegetation on outcropping rocks and on sites of
42
Brazil
restricted drainage. Between the Amazon and the Chaco, on the border of Bolivia and
reaching south to Paraguay and Argentina, is the Pantanal, a large swampland of c.
100,000 sq. km drained by the Rio Paraguay; it is a mixture of open swamp, flooded and
deciduous forest, Cerrado and Chaco; little known botanically (Prance and Schaller,
1982). Along the Atlantic coast from north of Pérto Alegre south to Bahia is a strip of
species-rich rain forests, reduced to relicts covering only 2-4% (S.J. Mayo, 1984, pers.
comm.) of original extent; perhaps the most endangered tropical rain forests in the world.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 13,600 sq. km/annum, out
of a total of 3,562,800 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1)
gives an analysis of the complex figures for deforestation in Brazil.
Checklists and Floras The part of Brazil north of the Tropic of Capricorn is
covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica, described in
Appendix 1. The only published country-wide Flora is:
Martius, K.F.P., Eichler, A.W, and Urban, I. (1840-1906). Flora Brasiliensis. Facsimile
reprint by Cramer, New York (1965).
More recent works are:
Angely, J. (1965). Flora Analitica do Parana. Edicées Phyton, Curitiba, Parana.
728 pp. (Annotated list of 5287 species.)
Angely, J. (1969-1970). Flora Analitica e Fitogeographica do Estado de Sao Paulo,
6 vols. Edicdes Phyton, Sao Paulo. (7251 species listed with dot maps.)
Flora Ecologica de Restingas do Sudeste do Brasil (1965-1978) (Various authors).
Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. (23 fascicles covering 24 families so far.)
Harley, R.M. and Mayo, S.J. (1980). Towards a Checklist of the Flora of Bahia. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. 250 pp. (A progress report on the Kew-CEPEC expeditions
to Bahia in 1974 and 1977; systematic list of 1596 species; predicts ‘‘a total of
10,000 species for Bahia seems a conservative estimate’’.)
Luis, I.T. (1960). Flora Analitica do Pérto Alegre. Instituto Geobioldgico ‘‘La Salle’’.
(Not seen.)
Pabst, G.F.J. and Dungs, F. (1975-1977). Orchidaceae Brasilienses, 2 vols. Briicke-
Verlag K. Schmersow, Hildesheim, Germany. 926 pp. In Portuguese, German and
English. (Watercolours of selected species.)
Reitz, P.R. (Ed.) (1965- ). Flora Ilustrada Catarinense. Herbario ‘‘Barbosa
Rodrigues’’, Itajai, Santa Catarina. (Includes dot maps; by 1983 had covered 2759
species in 109 families (117 fascicles), including Bromeliaceae, 1983.)
Rizzo, J. (1981- ). Flora do Estado de Goids, Colecdo Rizzo. Universidade Federal de
Goias, Goiania. 4 vols so far - Plan of Collection; Meliaceae by L. Graga Amaral;
Araliaceae by A.B. Peixoto; Myristicaceae by W. Rodrigues. (Dot maps.) Author
estimates 9605 species (1978, quoted in Toledo, 1985, cited in Appendix 1.)
Schultz, A.R.H. and Homrich, M.H. (1955-1977). Flora Ilustrada do Rio Grande do
Sul. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Pérto Alegre. 12 vols. Complete.
(Dot maps.)
Sobrinho, R.J. and Bresolin, A. (Eds) (1970-1977). Flérula da Ilha de Santa Catarina.
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Santa Catarina. 18 fascicles so far.
Teodoro Luis, I. (1960). Flora Analitica de Pérto Alegre. Instituto Geobiologica ‘‘La
Salle’’. Canoas. (Unpaged.)
In 1976 Brazil started Programa Flora, an inventory of vegetation and a computerized
label data bank of Brazilian herbaria. The Programme is divided into regional projects:
Projeto Flora Amaz6nica begun in 1977 and some 20 expeditions between then and 1983
43
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
have collected over 45,000 numbers; Projeto Flora Nordeste has also begun. The data
bank for the Amazonian herbaria is now functional and enquiries about Amazonian plants
can be made through the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e
Technoldgico in Brasilia.
Toledo (1985, cited in Appendix 1) reports as ‘‘in progress’’ a Flora of Minas Gerais,
by J. Angely, for a reported 11,156 species.
Field-guides
Centro de Pesquisas Florestais e Conservacéo da Natureza (1960, 1965). Flores da
Restinga (54 pp.); Arboreto carioca (4 vols). CPFCN, Rio de Janeiro.
Ferri, M. Guimaraes (1969). Plantas do Brasil: Espécies do Cerrado. Edgard Bliicher,
Sao Paulo. 239 pp. (Illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book; in 1985
FBCN (see below) start work on preparing a threatened plant list, grant-aided by
IUCN/WWFE (Project 3310). 8 plants are listed as threatened, with explanatory notes, in
Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited in Appendix 1, whereas 45 plant
species are listed in the annex to the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife
Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (1940). Threatened plants are mentioned in
several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular D. de
Andrade-Lima on preservation of the flora of north-eastern Brazil (pp. 234-239),
J.T. Mickel on rare and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore Jr. on
endangerment in palms (pp. 267-282), P. Ravenna on endangered bulbous species
(pp. 257-266).
Other references:
Carvalho, J.C.M. (1968). Lista das espécies de animais e plantas ameacadas de extincao
no Brasil. Fundacao Brasil. Conserv. Natureza, Bol. Inform. 3: 11-16. (13 species
listed.)
Casari, M.B. et al. (1980). Nove espécies ameacadas ou em perigo de desaparecimento
no Brasil. Resumos do 31 Congresso Nacional de Botanica. Sociedade Botanica do
Brasil, Ilhéus. p.123.
Cavalcanti, D.F. (1981). Plantas em extingao no Brasil. Funda¢do Brasil. Conserv.
Natureza, Bol. Inform. 16: 115-119.
Liddell, R. (1980). Collections and conservation of Brazilian orchids. In Sukshom,
M.R. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 9th World Orchid Conference. Amarin Press,
Thailand. Pp. 283-285.
Mori, S., Boom, B. and Prance, G. (1981). Distribution patterns and conservation of
eastern Brazilian coastal forest tree species. Brittonia 33(2): 233-245.
Many individual case studies on endangered plants have been published in Cadernos
FEEMA Ser. Trab. Techn., the Bulletin of the Centro de Botanica do Rio de Janeiro, e.g.
Scaevola plumieri in 18: 7-11 (1982); Bumelia obtusifolia in 18: 1-9 (1982); Ficus
lanuginosa in 18: 3-35 (1982); Dorstenia in 1: 29-65 (1982).
Laws Protecting Plants Portaria No. 303 of 29 May 1968 is a regulation to
implement the principal wildlife law in force (Lei No. 5197 of 3 January 1967); all trade,
transport or export of 13 listed plants is prohibited, with the exception of scientific
collection, for which a license is required from IBDF. The principal forestry law (Lei No.
4771 of 15 September 1965) covers trade in live plants and plant products; it is
administered by IBDF (Fuller and Swift, 1984, cited in Appendix 1; lists the 13 species).
44
Brazil
Voluntary Organizations
Associacao de Defesa do Meio Ambiente (ADEMA), Rua Pedroso Alvarenga 1245-4°,
and Sao Paulo, SP 04.531.
Associagao Gaticha de Protegao ao Ambiente Natural (AGAPAN), Caixa Postal 1996,
Pérto Alegre, RS 90.000.
Associacao de Preservacao da Flora e da Fauna (APREFFA), Caixa Postal 1176,
Curitiba, PR 80.000.
Centro de Conservacao da Natureza de Brasilia, Edificio Ant6nio Venancio da Silva,
sala 512, Brasilia, D.F.
Centro para Conservacado da Natureza de Minas Gerais, Caixa Postal 2475, Belo
Horizonte, MG 30.000.
Fundacao Brasileira para a Conservacéo da Natureza (FBCN), Rua Miranda Valverde
103, CEP 22281, Rio de Janeiro.
Unido dos Defensores da Terra (OIKOS), Caixa Postal 51.570, Sado Paulo, SP 01.000.
Botanic Gardens
Horto Botanico, Divisaéo de Botanico do Museu Nacional, Quinta da Béa Vista, Rio de
Janeiro, Guanabara.
Jardim Botanico da Fundac¢éo Zoobotanica do Rio Grande do Sul (FZM), Caixa Postal
1188, Pérto Alegre, RS 90.000.
Jardim Botanico, Instituto Basico de Biolégia Médica e Agricola (IBBMA), Caixa
Postal 526, 18.610 Botucatu, Sao Paulo.
Jardim Botanico do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Jardim Botanico 1.008, 22.460 Rio de
Janeiro.
Jardim Botanico de Sado Paulo, Instituto de Botanica, Caixa Postal 4005, 01000 Sao
Paulo.
Museu de Historia Natural, Rua Gustavo da Silveira, 1035 Horto, Belo Horizonte,
Minas Gerais.
Museu Paraense ‘‘Emilio Goeldi’’, Av. Magalhaes Barata 376, Caixa Postal 399,
66.000 Belém, Para.
Parque Botanico do Morro Bau, Av. Marcos Ronder 800, 88.300 Itajai, Santa
Catarina.
Reserva Ecolégia de IBGE, Edificio Venancio II, 2° Andar, 70.302 Brasilia, D.F.
Useful Addresses
FEEMA-DECAM, Herbario A. Castellanos, Estrada da Vista Chinesa 741, Alto da
Béa Vista, 20531 Rio de Janeiro.
Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal (IBDF), Esplanada dos Ministerios,
Brasilia 70.000.
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Amazonia (INPA), CP 478, Manaus, Amazonas,
69.000.
Museo Nacional, Quinta da Béa Vista, Rio de Janeiro, RJ CEP 20940.
SEMA, Ministerio do Interior, Esplanada dos Ministerios, Brasilia, D.F. 70054.
CITES Management Authority: Departamento de Parques Nacionais e Reservas
Equivalentes, IBDF, Sain-Av. L4 Norte, Brasilia, D.F.
CITES Scientific Authority (for flora): Jardim Botanica do Rio de Janeiro, see above.
Additional References
Ducke, A. and Black, G.A. (1953). Phytogeographical notes on the Brazilian Amazon.
An. Acad. Brasil. Ciéncias 25(1): 1-46.
Eiten, G. (1972). The cerrado vegetation of Brazil. Bot. Rev. 38: 301-341.
45
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Gentry, A. (1979). Extinction and conservation of plant species in Tropical America: a
phytogeographical perspective. In Hedberg, I. (Ed.), Systematic Botany, Plant
Utilization and Biosphere Conservation. Almqvist & Wiksell International,
Stockholm, Sweden. Pp. 110-126. (Includes map of principal vegetation types.)
Pires, J.M. (1973). Tipos de vegetacdo de Amaz6nia. Publ. Avulsas Museu Goeldi.
Belém 20: 179-202.
Pires, J.M. (1978). The forest ecosystems of the Brazilian Amazon: description,
functioning and research needs. In Unesco/UNEP/FAO, Tropical Forest
Ecosystems. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 607-627. (Substantial bibliography.)
Prance, G.T. (1977). The phytogeographic subdivisions of Amazonia and their
influence on the selection of biological reserves. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S.
(Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 195-213.
Prance, G.T. (1979). The present state of botanical exploration: South America. In
Hedberg, I. (Ed.), Systematic Botany, Plant Utilization and Biosphere Conservation.
Almavist & Wiksell International, Stockholm, Sweden. Pp. 55-70.
Prance, G.T. and Schaller, G.B. (1982). Preliminary study of some vegetation types of
the Pantanal, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Brittonia 34: 228-251.
Rizzini, C.T. (1976, 1979). Tratado de fitogeografia do Brasil. Sao Paulo.
HUCITEP/USP. 2 vols.
Veloso, H.P. (1966). Atlas Florestal do Brasil. Ministério da Agricultura, Rio de
Janeiro. 82 pp.
British Indian Ocean Terri-
tory (Chagos Archipelago)
The British Indian Ocean Territory is situated to the south of the Maldive Islands between
latitudes 5-10°S and longitudes 70-75°E. It includes the coral islands of the Chagos
Archipelago (60 sq. km) of which Diego Garcia (47 sq. km) is the largest. Population 2000.
Approximately 150 species of vascular plants (Fosberg and Bullock, 1971), of which about
100 are indigenous, mostly with pantropical or Indo-Pacific distributions. The vegetation
consists of Casuarina woodland, mixed coconut woodland (‘‘Cocos Bon-Dieu’’), Scaevola
scrub, marshland and relict broadleaved woodland with Ficus, Morinda, and Terminalia;
some areas cleared for coconut plantations.
Three checklists of the flora are:
Fosberg, F.R. and Bullock, A.A. (1971). List of Diego Garcia vascular plants. In
Stoddart, D.R. and Taylor, J.D. (Eds), Geography and ecology of Diego Garcia
Atoll, Chagos Archipelago. Afoll Res. Bull. 149. 143-160. (Annotated list of 142
taxa from Diego Garcia.)
Willis, J.C. and Gardiner, J.S. (1901). The botany of the Maldive Islands. Annals
Royal Botanic Gardens Peradeniya |: 45-164. (Includes annotated list of 359 species
recorded from Chagos Archipelago, Laccadives and Maldives.)
Willis, J.C. and Gardiner, J.S. (1931). Flora of the Chagos Archipelago. Trans. Linn.
Soc. Zoology 19: 301-306. (Annotated checklist.)
46
British Virgin Islands
A Dependent Territory of the U.K., comprising 30 small islands, mostly uninhabited. The
largest is the mountainous island of Tortola, 19 km long by 5.6 km wide. Other principal
islands are Virgin Gorda, Jost Van Dyke and Anegada. The islands are hilly and volcanic,
except for Anegada which is flat and formed of limestone and sand.
Area 153 sq. km
Population 13,000
Floristics No estimate for number of plant species. The Smith manuscript (see
below) includes an analysis of the endemic taxa. Anegada has floristic affinities with
Barbuda and Anguilla.
Vegetation Severely modified by man to mostly dry scrub woodland; scrub,
principally of Croton spp. and thorny bushes are dominant where there is heavy grazing of
feral goats and cattle; on higher ground ‘xerophytic rain forest’, a reduced type of
evergreen forest; on Gorda Peak a better developed forest than anywhere else on the
islands; vegetation of Anegada reduced to sandy scrub in the west and limestone scrub in
the east (C. Pannell, 1976, in litt.); 6.7% forested (FAO, 1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras
Britton, N. and Wilson, P. (1923-1930). Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands.
Scientific survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, 5 (626 pp.) and 6 (663 pp.).
New York Academy of Sciences, New York. (Keys, descriptions, general ranges and
distributions by island.)
J. Smith, of Treasure Island Botanic Garden, Tortola, has prepared a manuscript entitled
Native and naturalised flowering plants of the British Virgin Islands. It includes an outline
of the vegetation, descriptions of endemic plants and summary of recorded species.
See also:
D’Arcy, W.G. (1967). Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin
Islands. Rhodora 69: 385-450.
D’Arcy, W.G. (1975). Anegada Island: Vegetation and Flora. Afoll. Res. Bull. 188.
40 pp. (Illus. and maps.)
Liogier, A.H. (1965). Nomenclatural changes and additions to Britton and Wilson’s
‘‘Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands’. Rhodora 67(772): 315-361.
Liogier, A.H. (1967). Further changes and additions to the flora of Porto Rico and the
Virgin Islands. Rhodora 69 (779): 372-376.
Little, E.L., Jr. and Wadsworth, F.H. (1964). Common trees of Puerto Rico and the
Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook No. 249, U.S.D.A. Forest Service,
Washington, D.C. 548 pp. (Keys, mainly to families; descriptions, illus.,
_ distributions.) Spanish edition by authors and J. Marrero, Editorial UPR, Puerto
Rico, 1967.
Little, E.L., Jr. et al. (1974). Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Second
volume. Agriculture Handbook No. 449, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Washington,
D.C. 1024 pp. (2nd vol. to Little and Wadsworth, 1964, above; includes endemic,
rare and endangered tree species.)
Little, E.L., Jr., Woodbury, R.O. and Wadsworth, F.H. (1976). Flora of Virgin Gorda
(British Virgin Islands). U.S. Forest Service Research Paper 21. Institute of Tropical
Forestry, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. 36 pp. (Illus. and map.)
47
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Little, E.L., Jr. (1969). Trees of the Jost Van Dyke (British Virgin Islands). U.S.
Forest Service Research Paper 9. Institute of Tropical Forestry, Rio Piedras, Puerto
Rico. 12 pp. (Illus., checklist of 69 native and 18 introduced tree species, with notes
on vegetation.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Ayensu, E.S. and DeFilipps, R.A. (1978). Endangered and Threatened Plants of the
United States. Smithsonian Institution and WWF-U.S., Washington, D.C.
Pp. 225-232 (Lists 102 ‘Endangered’ and ‘Threatened’ taxa from Puerto Rico and
the Virgin Islands, both U.S. and British, with a useful bibliography; 9 of them
from the British Virgin Is.)
Little, E.L., Jr. and Woodbury, R.O. (1980). Rare and Endemic Trees of Puerto Rico
and the Virgin Islands. Conservation Research Report No. 27, U.S.D.A. Forest
Service, Washington, D.C. 26 pp.
Voluntary Organizations
The Virgin Islands Conservation Society (address not known).
Additional References
Anon (1960). Forestry. Extract from Report: British Virgin Islands, H.M.S.O., London
1957/58, (24). (A brief account of the preservation and conservation of the few
existing fragments of forest.)
Fraser, H. (1958). Forest conservation in the British Virgin Islands. In Willan, R.L.,
Forestry Development in the British Virgin Islands. FAO, Rome. 26 pp.
Pannell, C. (1976). Section on vegetation. In Report of the Cambridge Ornithological
expedition to the British Virgin Islands 1976. Cambridge University. Pp. 26-38.
Brunei
Area 5765 sq. km
Population 269,000
Floristics No overall figure for size of flora, but an estimated 2000 tree species
(M. Jacobs, quoted in Unesco, 1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Vegetation Tropical evergreen rain forest, rich in dipterocarps, up to 1300 m;
tropical montane rain forest to 1800 m; heath (kerangas) forest usually on sandy alluvial
soils and high-altitude sandstone ridges (Briinig, 1974; Whitmore, 1975b, cited in
Appendix 1); mangrove and peat swamp forest (with Shorea albida) occupy almost the
entire coastline. Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 50 sq. km out
of a total of 3230 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) estimates
c. 4300 sq. km are still covered by relatively undisturbed primary forest, while secondary
forests cover a further 1170 sq. km.
Brunei is included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958), and on the
vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora Malesiana region at
scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Brunei is included in the incomplete, but very detailed
Flora Malesiana (1948- ), cited in Appendix 1. National accounts include:
48
Brunei
Ashton, P. (1965). Manual of the Dipterocarp Trees of Brunei State. Oxford Univ.
Press. 242 pp. (Keys, descriptions, notes on distribution.)
Browne, F.G. (1955). Forest Trees of Sarawak and Brunei and Their Products. Govt
Printer, Kuching, Sarawak. 369 pp. (Descriptions of timber trees with notes on
distribution and wood properties.)
Pukul, H.B. and Ashton, P.S. (1966). A Checklist of Brunei Trees. Govt of Brunei
State. 132 pp. (List of trees, not including dipterocarps, arranged alphabetically by
vernacular name; botanical names and notes on distribution within Brunei.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Additional References
Anderson, J.A.R. (1963). The flora of the peat-swamp forests of Sarawak and Brunei,
including a catalogue of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns and fern
allies. Gard. Bull. Singapore 20: 131-228. (Enumeration of 33 pteridophytes and 395
flowering plant species; short descriptions and notes on distribution.)
Ashton, P.S. (1964). Ecological Studies in the Mixed Dipterocarp Forests of Brunei
State. Oxford Forestry Memoirs 25. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 75 pp.
Briinig, E.F. (1974). Ecological Studies in the Kerangas Forest of Sarawak and Brunei.
Borneo Literature Bureau, Kuching, Sarawak. 237 pp.
Bulgaria
Area 110,912 sq. km
Population 9,182,000
Floristics 3500-3650 native vascular species estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 53 endemics (IUCN figures). Elements: Atlantic,
Central European and alpine, with Mediterranean and sub-Mediterranean influence in the
south.
Areas of high endemism: Mt Slavjanka; Mt Pirin; Rhodope mountains; Stara Planina;
north-eastern Bulgaria; Thracian Plain; Black Sea coast; Strandja Mts; Tundza hill region;
and Mt Rila (Polunin, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Many Tertiary relicts (e.g. Haberlea
rhodopensis), especially in Rhodope Mts and Strandja and Slavyanka Mts (Stefanov,
1936).
Vegetation To the north of the Stara Planina (mountains running east-west
across Bulgaria), Central European vegetation with steppe elements (Stipa, Astragalus,
Phlomis spp.). On the Stara Planina, coniferous forest to 2000-2300 m with juniper and
pine-scrub at higher altitudes and alpine flora (Dryas, Empetrum and Salix spp.).
Deciduous oak and beech forests extend from the north-west with conifer forests of Pinus
heldreichii and P. peuce in the south and south-west. Forests of P. peuce particularly well-
developed in Bulgaria, forming pure stands above 1700 m in the Rila, Pirin and western
Rhodope Mts. They cover 11,600 ha, about 3% of the country’s conifer forests (Polunin
and Walters, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). To the south, in the plain of Thrace, sub-
Mediterranean maquis of Quercus coccifera, Phillyrea, Cistus.
49
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras Bulgaria is covered by the completed Flora Europaea
(Tutin et al., 1964-1980) and the Med-Checklist (both cited in Appendix 1). National
Floras:
Jordanov, D. et al. (Ed.) (1963- ). Flora Reipublicae Popularis Bulgaricae, 8 vols.
Bulgarskata Akad., Sofiya. (Incomplete, a further 2-3 vols planned; vol. 1 contains
an extensive historical account of Bulgarian floristic research; introductory text also
in English; habitat and ecology details; line drawings.)
Stojanov, N. and Stefanov, B. (1966-1967). Flora na Balgariya, 4th Ed. by B. Kitanov.
2 vols. Nauka i Izkustvo, Sofia. (Includes habitat and ecological details; illus.)
For a bibliography see:
Kitanov, B. (1975). Literature about the Flora and Plant Geography of Bulgaria.
1959-1968. Bulgarische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Sofia. 270 pp. (In Bulgarian.)
National botanical journal: Jzvestiya na Botanicheskiya Institut (Bulletin of the Institute
of Botany), Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia.
Field-guides
Delipavlov, D. et al. (1983). Opredelobal na Rastenijaba v Balgeorija. Zemisdat, Sofia.
431 pp.
Gramatikov, D. (1974). Identification of Wild and Cultivated Trees and Shrubs in
Bulgaria. Sofia. (In Bulgarian.)
Stojanov, N. and Kitanov, B. (1966). Plants of the High Mountains in Bulgaria.
Nauka, Izkustvo, Sofia. 149 pp. (In Bulgarian; illus.)
Valev, S., Gancev, I. and Velcev, V. (1960). Exskurzionna Flora na Balgarija. Narodna
Prosveta, Sofia. 736 pp. (Native, naturalized and commonly cultivated plants;
covers c. 2250 species.)
Also see Polunin (1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants The national plant Red Data Book is:
Velchev, V., Kozuharov, S., Bondev, I., Kuzmanov, B. and Markova, M. (1984). Red
Data Book of the People’s Republic of Bulgaria. Volume 1. Plants. Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Sofia. 447 pp. (Describes 763 threatened species; includes data
about distribution, habitats, ecology; maps; line drawings.)
See also:
Kuzmanov, B. (1978). About the ‘‘Red Book of Rare Bulgarian Plants’’. Phytology
(Bulgarian Academy of Sciences) 9: 17-32. (In Bulgarian, English summary; lists 150
rare Bulgarian plants.)
Other relevant publications include:
Dimitrov, D. (1977). Rare plant species of the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. Priroda
26(3): 95-96.
Kruscheva, R. and Pirbanov, R. (1978). Album of Protected and Rare Plants. (In
Bulgarian.)
Kuzmanov, B. (1981a). Mapping and protection of the threatened plants in the
Bulgarian flora. In Velcev, V.I. and Kozuharov, S.I. (1981), Mapping the Flora of
the Balkan Peninsula. 247 pp. (Not seen.)
Kuzmanov, B. (1981b). Balkan endemism and the problem of species conservation,
with particular reference to the Bulgarian flora. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 102(1-4): 255-270.
(Lists Bulgarian and Balkan endemic vascular species; maps; illus.)
50
Bulgaria
Stanev, S. (1975). The Stars are Becoming Extinct in the Mountains: Stories about our
Rare Plants. Zemizdat, Sofia. 129 pp. (In Bulgarian; stories describing searches for
rare plants.) .
Stefanov, B. and Bankov, M. (1978). Plants that are very rare in Bulgaria or that have
recently disappeared and the cause of their decline. Gorskostoponska Nauka 15(6):
3-10.
Veltchev, V. and Stoeva, M. (1985). Population approach to the investigation of the
threatened and rare species in the Bulgarian flora in connection with their
conservation. In: MAB, Conservation of Natural Areas and the Genetic Material
they Contain, International Symposium under Project 8 - MAB, 23-28 September
1985, Sofia. (In Bulgarian; English summary.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:4, V:10,
R:18, 1:8, K:2, nt:10; doubtfully endemic taxa - R:3, nt:3; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - V:16, R:23, I:10 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants The 1967 Law on Nature Protection prohibits the
picking, damage, sale of, destruction to or digging up of 67 listed plant species.
Voluntary Organizations
Bulgarian Botanical Society, Institute of Botany, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Garden, University of Sofia, ul. Moskowska 49, P.O. Box 157, 1090 Sofia.
Hortus Botanicus Academia Scientiarum Bulgaricae, Str. ‘‘Akad. G. Bontshev,’’ Clou
I, 1113 Sofia.
Useful Addresses
Committee for Environmental Protection, Council of Ministers of the People’s
Republic of Bulgaria, 1000 Sofia.
Committee for Protection of Nature and Environment, State Council of Bulgaria,
Trijadita 2, Sofia.
Concept for the Protection of the Natural Flora and Vegetation, Institute of Botany,
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 13 Sofia.
Ministry of Forests and Protection of the Natural Environment, 17 Antim I Street,
4000 Sofia.
National Council for Nature Protection, Vitoshastz 18, 1000 Sofia.
Research Co-ordinating Centre for Conservation and Reproduction of the
Environment, 2 Gagarin Street, 1113 Sofia.
Additional References
Kozuharovy, S. (1975). On the endemism in the Bulgarian flora. In Jordanov, D. et al.
(Eds), Problems of Balkan Flora and Vegetation. Proceedings of the Ist
International Symposium on Balkan Flora and Vegetation, Varna, June 7-14 1973.
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia. Pp. 162-168.
Stefanov, B. (1936). Remarks upon the causes determining the relict distribution of
plants. Spis. Bulg. Acad. Sci. 53: 133-179.
Stefanoff, B. and Jordanoff, D. (1931). Topographische Flora von Bulgarien. Bot.
Jahrb. 64(5): 388-536.
Stoilov, D. et al. (1981). Protected Natural Sites in the People’s Republic of Bulgaria.
Committee on Environmental Protection, Council of Ministers of the People’s
Republic of Bulgaria, Sofia. 31 pp. (Translated from Bulgarian by I. Saraouleva.)
51
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Stojanov, N. (1965). Phytogeographic elements in the flora of Bulgaria. Rev. Roum.
Biol. (Sér. Bot.) 10(1-2): 69-70.
Velcev, V., Bondev, I. and Kozuharov, S. (1975). The problem of protection of the
natural flora and vegetation in Bulgaria. In Jordanov, D. et al. (Eds), Problems of
Balkan Flora and Vegetation. Proceedings of the Ist International Symposium on
Balkan Flora and Vegetation, Varna, June 7-14 1973. Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences, Sofia. Pp. 431-435.
Burkina Faso
Area 274,122 sq. km
Population 6,768,000
Floristics 1096 species from 618 genera in National Herbarium (it is assumed that
all of these occur in Burkina Faso); degree of endemism unknown.
Floristic affinities predominantly Sudanian, but also Sahelian in extreme north.
Vegetation Acacia woodland in north; Sudanian woodland with Jsoberlinia in
south-west; large areas of more densely populated region in centre have been transformed
into park-like savanna woodlands dominated by Parkia biglobosa, Butyrospermum parkii
and Acacia albida; other dominants also occur.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Burkina Faso is included in the Flora of West Tropical
Africa, cited in Appendix 1.
Aubréville, A. (1959), cited under Ivory Coast. Although not actually including
Burkina Faso, includes many of the same species.
IRBET (1983). Inventaire de l’Herbier du CNRST de la Haute Volta. CNRST,
Ouagadougou.
Field-guides
Maydell, H.J. von (1983). Arbres et Arbustes du Sahel. Gesellschaft fiir Technische
Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn 4, F.R.G.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Laws Protecting Plants 15-20 species of economically important woody plants
are given special protection.
Botanic Gardens
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST), B.P. 7047,
Ouagadougou.
Useful Addresses
Centre National de Semances Forestiéres (CNSF), B.P. 2682, Ouagadougou.
Equipe Ecologie et Foréts, Comite Permanent Interetats de Lutte contre la Secheresse
dans la Sahel (CILSS), B.P. 7049, Ouagadougou.
Institute de Recherche en Biologie et Ecologie Tropicale (IRBET)/CNRST, B.P. 7047,
Ouagadougou.
Ministére de l’Environnement et Tourisme, Ouagadougou.
52
Burkina Faso
Additional References
Terrible, M. (1976 or 1978). Végétation de la Haute Volta au millionéme: carte et
notices provisoires. In Contribution a la Connaissance de la Haute Volta. Bobo-
Dioulasso.
Terrible, M. (1984). Essai sur l’Ecologie et la Sociologie d’Arbres et Arbustes de Haute
Volta. Librairie de la Savane, Bobo-Dioulasso.
Burma
Area 678,031 sq. km
Population 38,513,000
Floristics About 7000 flowering plant species, including about 200 exotic species
(Hundley and Chit Ko Ko, 1961). 1071 endemic vascular plant species (D. Chatterjee,
1939, quoted by Legris, 1974).
Vegetation Tropical lowland evergreen rain forest, mainly in south (Myers, 1980,
cited in Appendix 1); tropical hill evergreen rain forest and temperate evergreen rain forest
above 900 m in east, north and west; semi-evergreen rain forest in a narrow belt bordering
arid central plain; mixed deciduous forest with teak (Tectona grandis) and dry dipterocarp
forest in central Burma, under increasing pressure especially in the lowlands; coniferous
forests in Shan and Chin States, with Pinus khasya between 1200-2500 m on dry slopes;
oak and rhododendron forests on wetter slopes; 90,000 sq. km of bamboo forests
throughout (Nao, 1974); dry forest and scrub formations where rainfall below 1000 mm, _
including ‘than-dahat forest’ with Terminalia and Tectona, thorn scrub with Acacia and
Ziziphus, and ‘indaing scrub forest’ on lateritic soils, with Pentacme siamensis and Shorea
oblongifolia.
According to government publications, forests cover 57% of Burma; however, analysis of
recent satellite and air photographs by the FAO National Forest Inventory Project shows
forest cover reduced to 42% by 1980 (Blower, 1985). This figure includes ‘‘degraded
forests’’. According to Hundley (1984, in /itt.), evergreen forests comprise 40% of the
total forest cover; mixed deciduous forest 39%. There are 3650 sq. km of tropical lowland
evergreen rain forests. Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 1015
sq. km/annum out of a total of 311,930 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Myers (1980, quoting
Forest Department figures) states that about 1420 sq. km/annum of primary forest are
modified, if not transformed, by shifting cultivation.
For vegetation map see:
Stamp, L. (1924). Notes on the vegetation of Burma. Geographical J. 64(3): 272.
(Includes vegetation map, scale 1:8,000,000.)
Checklists and Floras Southern Burma is covered by the Flora of British India
(Hooker, 1872-1897), cited in Appendix 1. National accounts include:
Hundley, H.G. and Chit Ko Ko, U. (1961). List of Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Principal
Climbers, etc. Recorded from Burma with Vernacular Names, 3rd Ed. Govt Printing
Press, Rangoon. 532 pp.
53
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Kurz, S. (1874-1877). Contributions towards a knowledge of the Burmese flora.
J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 43(2): 39-141; 44(2): 128-190; 45(2): 204-310; 46: 49-258.
(Incomplete enumeration with notes on habitats and localities.)
Kurz, S. (1877). Forest Flora of British Burma, 2 vols. Govt Printer, Calcutta. (c. 2000
woody species and 2500 herbaceous species described; introductory chapter on
vegetation. Reprinted by Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 1974.)
Information on Threatened Plants A preliminary list of plants under
consideration for threatened plant status includes 12 species, mainly trees. All orchids,
Dioscorea and Panax are also under consideration (Hundley, in /itt.). See also:
Blower, J. (1985). Conservation priorities in Burma. Oryx 19(2): 79-85. (Deals mainly
with deforestation, protected areas and fauna; refers to 2 threatened trees.)
Laws Protecting Plants The Burma Forest Act, 1902 as amended to date, protects
habitats of 22 species, as well as all smooth-barked Dipterocarpus in Kanyin, Lower
Burma.
Botanic Gardens
Agri-Horticultural Society of Burma (Kandawgalay), Rangoon.
Government Botanical Gardens, Maymo.
Useful Addresses
Botany Department, Rangoon Arts and Sciences University, Rangoon.
Burma Forest School, Maymo.
Director General Forests of Burma, No. 62 Randeria Building, Rangoon.
Forest Research Institute, Yezin.
Additional References
Chatterjee, D. (1939). Studies on the endemic flora of India and Burma. J. Royal
Asiatic Soc. Bengal Sci. 5: 19-67.
Legris, P. (1974). Vegetation and floristic composition of humid tropical continental
Asia. In Unesco, Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources
Research 12. Paris. Pp. 217-238. (Includes bibliography of literature and vegetation
maps.)
Nao, T.V. (1974). Forest resources of humid tropical Asia. In Unesco, Natural
Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources Research 12. Paris.
Pp. 197-215.
Rao, A.S. (1974). The vegetation and phytogeography of Assam-Burma. In Mani, M.S.
(Ed.), Ecology and Biogeography of India. Junk, The Hague. Pp. 204-246.
Burundi
Area 27,834 sq. km
Population 4,503,000
Floristics 2500 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1). Levels of
endemism unknown, but unlikely to be high. Brenan (1978, cited in Appendix 1) gives a
figure of 26 species endemic to Rwanda and Burundi, out of ac. 39% sample of the Flore
du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Urundi.
54
Burundi
Floristic affinities with Lake Victoria and Afromontane regions.
Vegetation Mostly mosaic of East-African evergreen bushland and secondary
Acacia wooded grassland. Large areas of Afromontane communities in the west.
Brachystegia-Julbernardia (Miombo) woodland along south-east border. Small patches of
transitional rain forest in north-west. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed
broadleaved forest 4 sq. km/annum out of 140 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Burundi is included in the incomplete Flore du Congo
Belge et du Ruanda-Urundi (cited in Appendix 1), continued since 1972 as Flore d’Afrique
Centrale (Zaire - Rwanda - Burundi). Burundi’s plants of high altitudes are listed in
Afroalpine Vascular Plants (Hedberg, 1957), cited in Appendix 1.
Lewalle, J. (1970). Liste floristique et répartition altitudinale de la flore du Burundi
occidental. Université Officielle de Bujumbura. Cyclostyled. 84 pp. (c. 1700 species
and infraspecific taxa listed.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 54 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no
categories assigned.
Additional References
Devred, R. (1958). La végétation forestiére du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi. Bull.
Soc. R. For. Belg. 65: 409-468. (With vegetation map.)
Lebrun, J. (1956). La végétation et les territoires botaniques du Ruanda-Urundi.
Natural. Belges 37: 230-256.
Lewalle, J. (1968). Burundi. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 127-130.
Lewalle, J. (1972). Les étages de végétation du Burundi occidental. Bull. Jard. Bot.
Nat. Belg. 42: 1-247. (With ten black and white photographs.)
Reekmans, M. (1980a). La flore vasculaire de l’Imbo (Burundi) et sa phénologie.
Lejeunia, n.s. 100: 1-53.
Reekmans, M. (1980b). La végétation de la plaine de la Basse Rusizi (Burundi). Bull.
Jard. Bot. Nat. Belg. 50: 401-444.
There is a series of vegetation and soil maps covering Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi in c. 25
parts, published between 1954 and c. 1970 by the Institut National pour |’Etude
Agronomique du Congo (INEAC); each is accompanied by a descriptive memoir, and
several of the maps are to different scales. The series is called: Carte des Sols et de la
Végétation du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Urundi, or, more recently: ... du Congo, du
Rwanda et du Burundi.
Cameroon
Area 475,500 sq. km
Population 9,467,000
Floristics c. 8000 species (Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1; certainly between
8000 and 10,000 (R. Letouzey, 1984, in /itt.); 156 endemic species (but see below), with
55
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
c. 45 on Mt Cameroun (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1). This makes Cameroon one of
the richest countries floristically in Africa.
Floristic affinities Sudanian in north, and Guinea-Congolian in south. Mt Cameroun and
several other upland areas north-east from it hold Afromontane species. The lowland
forests of south-west Cameroon are especially rich in endemics, with a number of diverse,
species-rich communities.
Vegetation Extensive lowland rain forest interspersed with secondary grassland
and cultivation, but considerable area of Sudanian woodland in northern part of country
and sub-sahelian wooded grassland in extreme north. Also mangrove forest along coast.
Inland, in a band more or less SW-NE, extensive Afromontane communities, including
montane forest and grassland.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 800 sq. km/annum out of
179,200 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) quotes
the following estimates for the amount of primary forest remaining: 175,000 sq. km (Dept
of Forestry); 130,000 sq. km (Unesco, 1978). A further 60,000 sq. km have been given out
as timber concessions.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Mt Cameroun is included in Hochgebirgsflora (Engler,
1892), cited in Appendix 1.
Aubréville, A. et al. (Eds) (1963- ). Flore du Cameroun. Ministére de l’Enseignement
Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, Yaoundé; Muséum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, Paris. (27 fascicles so far; Flora less than half published.)
Letouzey, R. et al. (1978-1979). Flore du Cameroun: Documents Phytogéographiques,
Nos. 1 & 2. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Muséum National
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. (2 portfolios: introduction, maps 1:5,000,000, and
information on tree species of which the generic name begins with the letters ‘‘A’’
and ‘‘B’’.)
Field-guides Letouzey (1969-1972), cited in Appendix 1, contains information
about the forests of Cameroon.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 389 (see above) species and infraspecific taxa believed to be
endemic: V:22, R:17, 1:34, K:237, nt:79.
Laws Protecting Plants There is legislation forbidding the removal of trees less
than a certain diameter, and the collection of some rare plants.
Botanic Gardens
Victoria Botanic Gardens, Limbe.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Direction of Wildlife and National Parks, General
Delegation for Tourism, Yaoundé.
CITES Scientific Authority: Wildlife College, B.P. 271, Garoua; and: Delegate General
for Scientific Technological Research, B.P. 1457, Yaoundé.
Additional References
Letouzey, R. (1968a). Etude Phytogéographique du Cameroun. Lechevalier, Paris.
511 pp. (With 60 black and white photographs and several small-scale maps.)
56
Cameroon
Letouzey, R. (1968b). Cameroun. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 115-121.
Campbell Islands
A group consisting of Campbell Island, of area 113 sq. km, and a number of offlying islets
and rocks, c. 700 km south of New Zealand, in the South Pacific Ocean. The islands are
remnants of a dissected volcanic dome; the highest point is Mount Honey (567 m). The
islands were declared a Reserve for Preservation of Fauna and Flora in 1954 and are
administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand.
Area 114 sq. km
Population No permanent residents; 10-12 staff of the meteorological station on
Campbell Island (Clark and Dingwall, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
Floristics 223 native vascular plant taxa, and 85 introduced taxa (Meurk and
Given, in prep.). 3 endemics (Flora of New Zealand, 1961, cited under New Zealand).
Vegetation Tussock grassland on steep coastal slopes; Dracophyllum and
Coprosma scrub found in sheltered gullies to 180 m; above 300 m, Bulbinella and rush
communities dominate an underturf of grasses, bryophytes and lichens. Virtually the
whole island is covered by thick peat deposits, often over 1 m deep; in wetter areas,
sphagnum bog and peat moors. The offshore islets have Poa foliosa grassland and
herbaceous communities. On Campbell Island, introduced sheep, and the burning of scrub
for pasture, has modified the vegetation, and has led to the erosion of peatlands. Cattle
have been completely removed and there is a programme to reduce the number of sheep
(Clark and Dingwall, in prep., cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras The Campbell Islands are included in the Flora of New
Zealand (1961, 1970, 1980), cited under New Zealand.
Information on Threatened Plants See Given (1981a), cited under New Zealand.
Latest IUCN statistics: world threatened non-endemic taxa - R:1 (world category).
Laws Protecting Plants It is illegal to collect or introduce plants without a permit.
Useful Addresses
Department of Lands and Survey, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand.
Additional References
Godley, E.J. (1969). Additions and corrections to the flora of the Auckland and
Campbell Islands. N.Z. J. Bot. 7: 336-348. (Covers 45 taxa.)
Meurk, C.D. (1975). Contributions to the flora and plant ecology of Campbell Island.
N.Z. J. Bot. 13: 721-742. (62 new plant records.)
Meurk, C.D. and Given, D.R. (in prep.). The vascular flora and plant communities of
Campbell Island.
Sorenson, J.H. (1951). Botanical investigations on Campbell Island, 2: an annotated
list of the vascular plants. N.Z. DSIR, Cape Exped. Ser. Bull. 7: 25-38.
57
Canada
Based upon material by G.W. Argus
Area 9,922,387 sq. km
Population 25,302,000
Floristics About 3220 native species of vascular plants and about 880 introduced
species (Scoggan, 1978-1979). Most of the flora has recently reoccupied a landscape that
was covered by ice sheets. There are, however, Pleistocene refugia on northern Ellesmere
Island, central and northern Yukon, the mountains of Labrador and the Gaspe Peninsula,
Quebec, the eastern coastal plain (now inundated), and the Queen Charlotte Islands,
British Columbia. The most floristically diverse regions are southern British Columbia and
southwestern Ontario.
Vegetation North of the tree-line, arctic tundra; on western mountains above the
tree-line (which is at 900-2500 m, depending on latitude) alpine tundra; over about three-
quarters of Canada coniferous forest, dominated by White Spruce (Picea glauca) and
Black Spruce (P. mariana) extending from Newfoundland to Alaska; in British Columbia
a complex assemblage of subalpine, montane and coastal coniferous forests; in a narrow
band across central and western Canada, just north of the U.S. border, grassland - this
includes fescue grassland, tall grass prairie (largely destroyed by agriculture and now
confined to Manitoba), mixed grass and short grass prairie (southern Saskatchewan and
Alberta), and Palouse Prairie (dry interior valleys of British Columbia); between the
prairie and coniferous forest, in Central Canada, a transition zone characterized by
Trembling Aspen (Populus tremuloides); between the coniferous forest and the tundra,
transitional Taiga, characterized by open spruce woodlands with lichen ground cover; in
eastern Canada, around the Great Lakes region, mainly deciduous forest, e.g. of maple,
oak and other hardwood trees, but predominantly of conifers in some areas. (Partly from
Skoggan, 1978, who outlines other plant communities).
Checklists and Floras The national Flora is:
Scoggan, H.J. (1978-1979). The Flora of Canada, 4 vols. National Museum of Natural
Sciences, Ottawa. Publications in Botany 7. (Complete.)
North American checklists that include Canada are cited under the United States, which
does not have a National Flora. Regional and provincial Floras and checklists include:
Boivin, B. (1967-1979). Flora of the Prairie Provinces: a handbook to the flora of the
provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Phytologia 15: 121-159, 329-446;
16: 1-47, 219-261, 265-339; 17: 57-112; 18: 281-293; 22: 315-398; 23: 1-140; 42: 1-24,
385-414; 43: 1-106, 223-251.
Calder, J.A. and Taylor, R.L. (1968). Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Part 1,
Systematics of the vascular plants. Canada Dept Agriculture, Research Branch,
Monogr. 4(1). 659 pp.
Gleason, H.A. and Cronquist, A. (1963). Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern
United States and Adjacent Canada. Van Nostrand, Princeton, New Jersey. 810 pp.
(Covers New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and parts of Ontario and Quebec
south of the 47th parallel.)
Hultén, E. (1968). Flora of Alaska and Neighboring Territories: a manual of the
vascular plants. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, Calif. 1008 pp. (Covers Yukon and
northwestern British Columbia.)
58
Canada
Marie-Victorin, E.C. (1964). Flora Laurentienne. Les Presses de l’Université de
Montréal, Montréal, Québec. 925 pp.
Moss, E.H. (1983). Flora of Alberta, 2nd Ed. revised by J.G. Packer. Univ. Toronto
Press. 687 pp. (Includes dot maps.)
Porsild, A.E. and Cody, W.J. (1980). Vascular Plants of Continental Northwest
Territories, Canada. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa. 667 pp. (Includes line
drawings and dot maps; area covered is between 60th parallel and Arctic Ocean, and
from Yukon-Mackenzie border to west coast of Hudson Bay.)
Roland, A.E. (1947). The flora of Nova Scotia. Proc. Nova Scotia Inst. Sci. 21:
94-642. (2nd Ed. in 2 parts by A.E. Roland and E.C. Smith, 1966, 1969.)
Scoggan, H.J. (1957). Flora of Manitoba. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No.
140. 619 pp.
Taylor, R.L. and MacBryde, B. (1977). Vascular Plants of British Columbia: A
descriptive resource inventory. Botanical Garden, Univ. of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Tech. Bull. No. 4. 754 pp.
Welsh, S.L. (1974). Anderson’s Flora of Alaska and Adjacent Parts of Canada.
Brigham Young Univ. Press, Provo, Utah. 724 pp. (Covers Yukon and northwestern
British Columbia.)
Information on Threatened Plants The Rare and Endangered Plants Project
(address below) is publishing rare plant lists for the Canadian provinces and territories.
These are annotated lists, in English and French, of taxa with notes on habitat and
distribution but with only limited indications of degree of threat. Dot maps are included
except for the Ontario and Alberta lists. For further details of the programme see Argus
(1977).
Argus, G. W. and White, D. J. (1977). The rare vascular plants of Ontario. Syllogeus 14.
Argus, G.W. and White, D.J. (1978). The rare vascular plants of Alberta.
Syllogeus 17.
Argus, G.W. et al. (Eds) (1982- ). Atlas of the Rare Vascular Plants of Ontario. First
two parts edited by G.W. Argus and D.J. White (1982, 1983), 3rd part by
G.W. Argus and C.J. Keddy (1984), 4th and final part by G.W. Argus and
K. Pryer (in prep.). National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario.
(Supercedes Argus and White, 1977.)
Bouchard, A.D., Barabé, D., Dumais, M. and Hay, S. (1983). The rare vascular plants
of Quebec. Syllogeus 48.
Douglas, G.W., Argus, G.W., Dickson, H.L. and Brunton, D.F. (1981). The rare
vascular plants of the Yukon. Syllogeus 28.
Hinds, H. (1983). The rare vascular plants of New Brunswick. Syllogeus 50.
Maher, R.V., Argus, G.W., Harms, V.L. and Hudson, J.H. (1979). The rare vascular
plants of Saskatchewan. Syllogeus 20. (Reviewed in Threatened Plants Committee -
Newsletter, No. 5: 11, 1980.)
Maher, R.V., White, D.J., Argus, G.W. and Keddy, P.A. (1978). The rare vascular
plants of Nova Scotia. Syllogeus 18.
Taylor, R.L., Douglas, G.W. and Straley, G. (in press). The rare vascular plants of
British Columbia. Syllogeus.
White, D.J. and Johnson, K.L. (1980). The rare vascular plants of Manitoba.
Syllogeus 27.
A computerized list of the rare and endangered vascular plants in Canada was compiled at
the University of Waterloo and last updated in 1978. Abbreviated version published as:
59
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Kershaw, L.J. and Morton, J.K. (1976). Rare and potentially endangered species in the
Canadian flora - A preliminary list of vascular plants. Can. Bot. Assoc. Bull. -9(2):
26-30.
The complete list was included as an appendix in:
Kershaw, L.J. (1976). A Phytogeographical Survey of Rare, Endangered and Extinct
Plants in the Canadian Flora. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Waterloo, Ontario.
Also relevant:
Guppy, G.A. (1977). Endangered plants in British Columbia. Davidsonia 8: 24-30.
Isnor, W. (1981). Provisional Notes on the Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals
of Nova Scotia. Curatorial Report No. 46, Nova Scotia Museum, 1747 Summer
Str., Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3A6. (Notes on identification, distribution, habitat
and vulnerability for 82 vascular plants, with dot maps.)
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book includes 7 species for Canada. No IUCN statistics; there -
are c. 500 species that are rare throughout Canada.
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), a
committee established in 1977 of the Canadian Federal-Provincial Wildlife Conference, is
charged with preparing status reports and assigning status to Canadian species in jeopardy
(Haber, 1983). This has been done for 19 plant species, including 7 ‘endangered’, 8
‘threatened’ and 4 ‘rare’. The status reports are available at cost from Canadian Nature
Federation (see below).
Laws Protecting Plants Complex and numerous; mostly at provincial level; for
details see Argus (1977).
Voluntary Organizations
Canadian Nature Federation, 75 Albert Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIL 8B9.
Nature Conservancy of Canada, 22 Hillside Drive S., Toronto, Ontario M4K 2M2.
WWF-Canada, 60 St Clair Ave. E., Suite 201, Toronto, Ontario M4T INS.
Botanic Gardens The following Canadian botanic gardens subscribe to the IUCN
Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body.
Devonian Botanic Garden, University of Alberta, Room B-414, Biological Sciences
Centre, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9.
Jardin Botanique de la ville de Montréal, 4101 rue Sherbrooke est, Montréal, Québec
H1X 2B2.
Oxen Pond Botanic Park, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s,
Newfoundland A1C 5S7.
Royal Botanic Gardens, P.O. Box 3990, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 3H8.
University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, 6501 Northwest Marine Drive,
Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1WS.
University of Guelph Arboretum, Guelph, Ontario NIG 2W1.
Useful Addresses
Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC), Canadian
Wildlife Service, Dept of the Environment, Ottawa, Ontario, KIA 0E7.
National Museum of Natural Sciences, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario
K1iA 0M8.
Rare and Endangered Plants Project, Botany Division, National Museum of Natural
Sciences, Ottawa, Ontario KIA OM8.
60
Canada
CITES Management Authority: The Administrator, CITES, Canadian Wildlife Service,
Dept of Environment, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0E7.
Additional References
Argus, G.W. (1977). Canada. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 17-29.
Argus, G.W. and McNeill, J. (1974). Conservation of evolutionary centres in Canada.
In Maini, J.S. and Carlisle, A., Conservation in Canada: A Conspectus. Dept of
Environment, Canadian Forest Service Publication 1340. Pp. 131-141.
Haber, E. (1983). A report on the work of COSEWIC. The Plant Press 1(3): 45-47.
Morton, J.K. (Ed.) (1976). Proceedings of the Symposium: Man’s Impact on the
Canadian Flora. Canadian Botanical Association Bulletin, Suppl. to Vol. 9, No. 1.
Scudder, G.C.E. (1979). Present patterns in the fauna and flora of Canada. In Danks,
H.V., Canada and its insect fauna. Mem. Entomol. Soc. Can. 108: 87-179.
Soper, J.H. (1979). Nature conservation in Canada. In Hedberg, I. (Ed.), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 143-146.
Canary Islands
An archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of Africa, between Madeira
and the Cape Verde Islands and belonging to Spain. Comprises the 2 Spanish metropolitan
provinces of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Las Palmas
province includes Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote together with 3 islets -
Alegranza, Graciosa, Lobos - and several uninhabited rocks. Santa Cruz de Tenerife
province comprises the islands of Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierro.
Area 7273 sq. km
Population 1,394,288 (local figures, 1979)
Floristics About 2000 species of native and introduced vascular plants (D.
Bramwell, 1985, pers. comm.), mostly of native Mediterranean species and introduced
weeds and aliens. This includes a remarkable endemic flora of over 500 taxa (IUCN
figures), with 19 endemic genera (Bramwell, 1976).
Generally considered to be a relict flora, with affinities to Tertiary Mediterranean flora;
many endemics have their nearest relatives in South and East Africa, and even South
America, being considered to be relicts of an African Tertiary ‘Rand’ flora (Bramwell,
1974, 1976 and 1985 pers. comm.).
Vegetation In the western and central islands extensive woods; in the eastern
islands mostly xerophytic scrub, reflecting the more arid climate of North Africa.
Bramwell (1974) lists 6 vegetation types, which show striking altitudinal zonation: semi-
desert succulent scrub (0-700 m); juniper scrub (south slopes, 400-600 m); tree heath and
evergreen forest, the former of Erica arborea, the latter of Lauraceae, forming the famous
and species-rich laurel forests, of which only small areas remain (400-1300 m); savanna of
Pinus canariensis (800-1900 m); montane scrub (1900-2500 m); and subalpine scrub (only
on Pico de Teide, Tenerife, c. 2600 m). In Gran Canaria the laurel forest is now less than
1% of its original extent; on Tenerife about 10%.
61
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras The Canaries are covered by the Flora of Macaronesia
checklist (Hansen and Sunding, 1979, cited in Appendix 1). There is no Canarian Flora,
but see:
Kunkel, G. (1974- ). Flora de Gran Canaria. 10 vols projected, 4 completed. Excmo.
Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas. (1 - arboles y arbustos arbéreos; 2 -
enredaderas, trepadoras y rastreras; 3 - las plantas suculentas; 4 — los subarbustos;
illus.)
Lid, J. (1967). Contributions to the Flora of the Canary Islands. Universitetsforlaget,
Oslo. 212 pp. (Annotated list of species with keys.)
Santos Guerra, A. (1983). Vegetacién y Flora de La Palma. Editorial Interinsular
Canaria, Tirso de Molina 8, Santa Cruz de Tenerife. 348 pp. (Includes catalogue of
flora with distribution maps for most of the Macaronesian and Canarian endemics;
maps of actual and potential vegetation; colour illus.)
The Jardin Botanico ‘‘Viera y Clavijo’’ is creating a computer database on the Canarian
flora, developed from the Flora of Macaronesia checklist.
Three Canarian journals contain numerous articles on the flora: Botanica Macaronésica,
published by Jardin Botanico ‘‘Viera y Clavijo’’, Cuadernos de Botanica Canaria,
published privately, now discontinued, and Vieraea, published by Museo Insular de
Ciencias Naturales, Tenerife. 4
Field-guides
Bramwell, D. and Z.I. (1974). Wild Flowers of the Canary Islands.-Stanley Thornes,
London. 261 pp. (Keys, descriptions, illus., mostly of the endemics; also describes
areas of botanical interest.) Spanish edition as Flores Silvestres de las Islas Canarias,
2nd Ed., 1983, Editorial Rueda, Porto Cristo 13, Alcorcon, Madrid; German edition
as Kanarische Flora: Illustrierter Fiihrer, 1983, Editorial Rueda (without the keys
and descriptions).
Kunkel, G. (1981). Arboles y Arbustos de las Islas Canarias: Guia de Campo.
Coleccion Botanica Canaria, Vol. 1. 138 pp. (Line drawings.)
The Caja Insular de Ahorras de Gran Canaria, with the Jardin Botanico ‘‘Viera y
Clavijo’’, have prepared a set of data cards with colour illustrations of Canarian plants,
mostly endemic and threatened.
Information on Threatened Plants A national threatened plant list has recently
been published:
Barreno, E. et al. (Eds) (1984). Listado de Plantas Endemicas, Raras o Amenazadas de
Espafia. Informacion Ambiental. Conservacionismo en Espana. No. 3. (Includes
separate lists for peninsula Spain, Balearic Islands and Canary Islands; for the latter
578 threatened endemic taxa are listed; compiled with the agreement of numerous
authoritative Spanish botanists, it is now the definitive list.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1. Latest IUCN statistics based upon Barreno (1984): endemic taxa - Ex:1,
E:126, V:119, R:132, 1:5, K:26, nt:160; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:1,
V:17, R:2, I:1 (world categories). See also:
Bramwell, D. and Perez, J.P. (1982). Prioridades para la conservacién de la diversidad
genética en la flora de las Islas Canarias. Botdnica Macaronesica 10: 3-17. (Classifies
the species from the 1980 IUCN list in terms of the priorities of the World
Conservation Strategy.)
62
Canary Islands
Kunkel, G. (Ed.) (1975). Inventario de los Recursos Naturales Renovables de la
Provincia de las Palmas. Excmo. Cabildo Insular, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
156 pp., maps. (Results of IUCN/WWF Project 817, undertaken by Asociacién
Canaria para la Defensa de la Naturaleza.)
The Environment Department of the Autonomous Government of the Canary Islands is
preparing a protected area programme for the Canarian flora.
Voluntary Organizations Several local ecology groups, the most important being:
Asociacion Canaria para la Defensa de la Naturaleza (ASCAN), c/o Presidente Alvear
50, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Viera y Clavijo’’, Apto de Correos 14 de Tafira Alta, 35017 Las
Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Jardin de Aclimatacion de la Orotava, Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife.
Useful Addresses
Gobierno de Canarias, Consejeria de Obras Publicas, Ordenacién de Teritorio y Medio
Ambiente, Edificio Hamilton, Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
Additional References
Bramwell, D. (1976). The endemic flora of the Canary Islands; distribution,
relationships and phytogeography. In Kunkel, G. (Ed.), see below. Pp. 207-240.
Ceballos, L.C. and Ortufio, F. (1976). Estudio sobre la Vegetacién y Flora Forestal de
las Canarias Occidentales, 2nd Ed. Excmo. Cabildo Insular, Sta Cruz de Tenerife.
433 pp. (Covers Gomera, Hierro, La Palma, Tenerife; illus., vegetation maps.)
Hernandez, P.H. (1979). Natura y Cultura de las Islas Canarias, 3rd Ed. La Cultura,
Apto de Correos, 1012 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
Kunkel, G. (Ed.) (1976). Biogeography and Ecology in the Canary Islands. Junk, The
Hague. 511 pp. (Includes essays on the Hierro laurisilva by E. Schmid (pp. 241-248),
the introduced elements in the flora by G. Kunkel (pp. 249-266), the influence of
man on Hierro vegetation by F. Kammer (pp. 327-346) and on conservation by
M. Sutton (pp. 479-483).)
Sunding, P. (1973). A Botanical Bibliography of the Canary Islands, 2nd Ed. Botanical
Garden, Univ. of Oslo. 46 pp.
Canton and Enderbury
Islands ~
Canton (9 sq. km) and Enderbury (6.5 sq. km) are low coral atolls 2620 km south-west of
the Hawaiian islands and north of the Phoenix Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The islands
are jointly administered by the United States and United Kingdom. There are no
permanent inhabitants.
Canton (2°50’S, 171°40’W) has 14 native species and over 150 introduced weeds
(Hatheway, 1955). Most of the flora consists of wide-ranging Indo-Pacific strand plants.
The vegetation consists mainly of Scaevola and Tournefortia scrub, Portulaca herbaceous
communities and a few Cordia trees and coconuts. Hatheway (1955) reported that 23% of
63
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
the land surface of Canton had little or no natural vegetation, and a further 40% consisted
of disturbed ground.
References
Degener, O. and I. (1959). Canton Island, South Pacific (Resurvey of 1958). Atoll Res.
Bull. 64. 24 pp. (Includes notes on flora.)
Degener, O. and Gillaspy, E. (1955). Canton Island, South Pacific. Atoll Res. Bull. 41.
51 pp. (Checklist of introductions and notes on 68 species on Canton.)
Hatheway, W.H. (1955). The natural vegetation of Canton Island, an equatorial
Pacific atoll. Atoll Res. Bull. 43. 9 pp.
Luomala, K. (1951). Plants of Canton Island, Phoenix Islands. Occ. Papers Bernice P.
Bishop Mus. 20(11): 157-174. (59 taxa listed.)
Cape Verde
The Cape Verde Islands, 445 km off the west coast of Africa, consist of two groups of
volcanic islands: Windward (Santo Antao, Sao Vicente, Santa Luzia, Sao Nicolau, Sal and
Boa Vista) and Leeward (Maio, Sao Tiago, Fogo and Brava). They occupy 14°48’-
17°12’N, 22°44’-25°22’W. The highest point is 2829 m on Fogo.
Area 4033 sq. km
Population 317,000
Floristics c. 659 species of vascular plants including introductions (Sunding,
1973, 1974); 92 endemics (Humphries, 1979).
Lowland species with tropical affinities; mountain species with Macaronesian or
Mediterranean affinities.
Vegetation Original vegetation almost totally destroyed and potential vegetation
impossible to assess. Mostly now lowland arid pastures with large numbers of goats, and
agricultural crops and plantations on fertile slopes. More arid pastures above c. 1400 m,
and more or less bare rocky summits at the highest altitudes on Fogo and Santo Antao.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Cape Verde is included in the Flora of Macaronesia
checklist (Hansen and Sunding, 1979), cited in Appendix 1.
Chevalier, A. (1935a). Les iles du Cap Vert. Géographie, biogéographie, agriculture.
Flore de l’Archipel. Rev. Bot. Appl. Agric. Trop. 15: 733-1090. (Includes annotated
checklist, pp. 867-1074.)
Chevalier, A. (1946). Additions a la flore des Iles du Cap Vert. In Contribution a
(Etude du Peuplement des Iles Atlantides, Mém. Soc. Biogéogr. 8: 349-356.
Sunding, P. (1973). Check-list of the Vascular Plants of the Cape Verde Islands.
Botanical Garden, Univ. of Oslo, Oslo. 36 pp. (Includes distributions.)
Sunding, P. (1974). Additions to the vascular flora of the Cape Verde Islands. Garcia
de Orta, Sér. Bot. 2(1): 5-30.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Cape Verde
Useful Addresses
Ministério de Desenvolvimento Rural, C.P. 50, Praia, S. Tiago.
Additional References
Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1968a). L’archipel du Cap-Vert. In Hedberg, I. and O.
(1968), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 94-97.
Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1968b). Vegetation. In Bannerman, D.A. and W.M. (Eds),
History of the Birds of the Cape Verde Islands. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.
Pp. 58-61. (Birds of the Atlantic Islands, vol. 4.)
Chevalier, A. (1935b). Apercu sur la végétation des files de Cap Vert. Compt. Rend.
Somm. Séanc. Soc. Biogéogr. 99: 21-24.
Humphries, C.J. (1979). Endemism and evolution in Macaronesia. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 171-199.
Sunding, P. (1977). A botanical bibliography of the Cape Verde Islands. Bol. Mus.
Munic. Funchal 31: 100-109.
Sunding, P. (1979). Origins of the Macaronesian flora. In Bramwell, D. (Ed.), Plants
and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 13-40.
Teixeira, A.J. da Silva and Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1958). A agricultura do
Arquipélago de Cabo Verde. Mem. Junta Invest. Ultram., Sér. 2 2, and Mem. Trab.
No. 26, Ministério do Ultramar, Lisboa. 178 pp. (With 10 maps in colour,
1:50,000-1:100,000; 77 plates of photographs.)
Cargados Carajos
A group of 22 coralline islands c. 350 km NNE of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, 16°20’S,
59°20’E; made up of sand banks, shoals and islets. Total land area probably c. 4 sq. km.
Also called St Brandon, after the name of the principal reef complex. Total 41 species,
including 11 cultivated species, 13 weeds and 17 indigenous pantropical species. No
endemics. (Staub and Guého, 1968; Renvoize, 1979.) The vegetation consists mostly of
littoral scrub and herb mat; trees more or less absent except for a few stunted individuals.
References
Renvoize, S.A. (1979). The origins of Indian Ocean island floras. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 107-129.
Staub, F. and Guého, J. (1968). The Cargados Carajos shoals or St Brandon:
resources, avifauna and vegetation. Proc. Roy. Soc. Arts Sci. Mauritius 3(1): 7-46.
(Includes annotated checklist of plants.)
Caroline Islands
An archipelago of 70 islands in the west Pacific Ocean, to the east of the Philippines, and
extending for over 2500 km, between latitudes 5°-10°N and longitudes 130°-165°E. In the
west, the Palau Islands comprise volcanic islands, raised limestone islands and low coral
atolls, including several hundred islets within a single reef system. The Yap Islands, north-
east of the Palau Islands, are mainly metamorphic and old volcanic islands surrounded by
65
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
broad fringing reefs. Further east are the Truk and Ponape Islands which include high
volcanic islands surrounded by barrier reefs. The highest point is 791 m, on the island of
Ponape. The Caroline Islands form part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the
Pacific Islands administered by the United States.
Area 1170 sq. km
Population 85,910 (1980 estimate)
Floristics No overall figure for the size of the flora, but 992 taxa are
dicotyledons, of which 609 are native, including 267 endemics (Fosberg, Sachet and
Oliver, 1979, cited in Appendix 1). 201 native fern taxa, of which 26 are endemic; one
native non-endemic gymnosperm (Cycas circinalis) (Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1982,
cited in Appendix 1). Most of the flora of the Carolines is related to that of Indo-Malesia
and Melanesia-New Guinea.
Vegetation Evergreen rain forest and savanna woodlands on the Yap Islands;
lowland rain forest, with Campnosperma, Manilkara, Calophyllum, Eugenia, Ficus, and
tree ferns on the Palau, Truk and Ponape Islands; mixed forests on limestone on Fais, in
the Yap group, and in southern Palau; montane rain forest on Ponape and Kusaie, in the
Ponape group, and on the summit of Mt Winibot (480 m) on Tol, in the Truk group;
mangrove forest on south-west and south-east coasts of Ponape, and south and north-west
coasts of Kusaie.
Much of the natural vegetation has been cleared for coconut plantations (e.g. on Yap and
Puluwat, in the Yap group) or disturbed by phosphate mining (e.g. on the raised coral
island of Fais). Few areas of native vegetation remain on the Truk Islands, except on the
high volcanic islands of Moen, Dublon, Uman, Fefan, Udot and Tol. Although the
lowland forests on the Ponape Islands have been much disturbed, both Kusaie and the
island of Ponape retain upland forests. See Fosberg (1973, cited in Appendix 1) for
description of forests and conservation problems.
Checklists and Floras The Carolines are included in Flora Micronesica
(Kanehira, 1933), the regional checklists of Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver (1979, 1982), and
will be covered in the Flora of Micronesia (1975- ), all cited in Appendix 1. Separate
accounts for individual islands include:
Alkire, W.H. (1974). Native classification of flora on Woleai Atoll. Micronesica 10(1):
1-5. (Lists 84 species with vernacular names.)
Fosberg, F.R. (1969). Plants of Satawal Island, Caroline Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 132.
13 pp. (Includes annotated checklist of 6 native fern species; 97 angiosperm taxa, of
which 46 introduced.)
Fosberg, F.R. and Evans, M. (1969). A collection of plants from Fais, Caroline
Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 133. 15 pp. (Includes annotated checklist of 3 native fern
species; 117 angiosperm taxa, of which 59 introduced.)
Fosberg, F.R., Otobed, D., Sachet, M.-H., Oliver, R.L., Powell, D.A. and Canfield,
J.E. (1980). Vascular Plants of Palau with Vernacular Names. Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C. 43 pp. (Checklists; exotics indicated.)
Glassman, S.F. (1952). The flora of Ponape. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 209.
152 pp. (Ponape has 249 indigenous angiosperms, 8 endemic.)
Glassman, S.F. (1957). The vascular flora of Ponape and its phytogeographical
affinities. In Proc. 8th. Pacific Science Congress - Botany. Pp. 201-213.
66
Caroline Islands
Marshall, M. (1975). The natural history of Namoluk Atoll, eastern Caroline Islands.
Atoll Res. Bull. 189. 53 pp. (Includes annotated list of 113 taxa; notes on
vegetation.)
St John, H. (1948). Report on the flora of Pingelap Atoll, Caroline Islands,
Micronesia, and observations on the vocabulary of the native inhabitants. Pacific
Plant Studies 7. Pacific Science 2: 96-113. (Annotated checklist of 57 taxa, 32
indigenous.)
Stone, B.C. (1959). Flora of Namonuito and the Hall Islands. Pacific Science 13:
88-104. (Annotated checklist of 94 species, 52 indigenous.)
Stone, B.C. (1960). Corrections and additions to the Flora of the Hall Islands and to
the Flora of Ponape. Pacific Science 14: 408-410.
Information on Threatened Plants 4 vascular plant species are listed as
‘Endangered’ in Territorial Register 2(1), 4 December 1976. (Adopted Regulations Title 45
- Fish, Shellfish and Game.)
Cayman Islands
A Dependent Territory of the U.K. comprising three islands - Grand Cayman (the largest
— 35.5 km by 13 km at its widest), Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. They lie 240 km north-
west of Jamaica and 772 km south of Miami. They are relatively flat and low-lying except
for Cayman Brac, which is bordered by cliffs and reaches 43 m above sea-level.
Area 259 sq. km
Population 18,000
Floristics Just over 600 species of vascular plants, of which 102 are either
cultivated or naturalized from cultivation (Proctor, 1984); 18 endemic species and 3
endemic varieties; affinities with other Antillean islands rather than Central America
(Proctor, 1984).
Vegetation Little true woodland remains on Grand Cayman; a few isolated
patches of dry evergreen forest (in the east of Grand Cayman and on Cayman Brac); in the
uplands dry evergreen thicket, often reduced to pasture; littoral thicket on northern and
eastern shores, grading inland to dry evergreen bush (much of western end of Grand
Cayman); mangrove (mainly Grand Cayman); seasonal grassland swamp (West Bay area
of Grand Cayman).
Checklists and Floras
Proctor, G.R. (1980). Checklist of the plants of Little Cayman. Afoll Res. Bull. 241:
71-80.
Proctor, G.R. (1984). Flora of the Cayman Islands. Kew Bulletin Additional Series X1.
834 pp. (Includes section on environment and plant associations by M.A. Brunt.)
Cayman Island records are also included in the Jamaican Flora by Adams (1972) and
Proctor (1982), cited under Jamaica.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
67
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Additional References
Sauer, J.D. (1982). Cayman Islands Seashore Vegetation: A Study in Comparative
Biogeography. University of California Publications Geography Vol. 25. Univ.
California Press, Berkeley. 161 pp.
Central African Republic
Area 624,977 sq. km
Population 2,508,000
Floristics Flora very poorly known. 3600 species (Sillans, 1958); almost certainly
too low. Of these, c. 1000 occur in the rain forest with c. 10 endemic, and 2600 in the
savanna with c. 90 endemic (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1). Endemics concentrated
on mountain range in north-east.
Floristic affinities predominantly Sudanian, but also Guinea-Congolian in south.
Vegetation Mostly Sudanian woodland with Jsoberlinia, Terminalia and
Combretum, but also Sahelian woodland with Acacia in extreme north, and lowland rain
forest interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivation in southern quarter of
country. Very large area of unexploited moist forest round Bangassou south-east of centre
of country. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 50 sq.
km/annum out of 35,900 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras
Boulvert, Y. (1980?). Catalogue de la Flore de |’Empire Centrafricaine, 2 vols.
ORSTOM, 20 rue Monsieur, Paris.
Guigonis, G. (1970). Liste des arbres et arbustes vivant dans la forét dense et les
galeries de la Republique Centrafricaine. Cyclostyled. 30 pp. (Lists 645 species.)
Tisserant, C. (1950). Catalogue de la flore de l’?Oubangui-Chari. Mem. Inst. Etud.
Centrafricaines 2. 165 pp. Imprimerie Julia, Toulouse.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 117 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no
categories assigned.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Direction des chasses, B.P. 830, Bangui.
Additional References
Aubréville, A. (1964). La forét dense de la Lobaye. Cah. Maboké 2(1): 5-9.
Boulvert, Y. (1980). Végétation forestiére des savanes Centrafricaines. Bois Foréts
Trop. 191: 21-45. (With several maps and black and white photographs.)
Guigonis, G. (1968). République Centrafricaine. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 107-111.
Lanly, J.P. (1966). La forét dense centrafricaine. Bois Foréts Trop. 108: 43-55.
Sillans, R. (1958). Les Savanes de l’Afrique Centrale Francaise. Lechevalier, Paris.
423 pp. (Numerous illustrations throughout.)
68
Chad
Area 1,284,000 sq. km
Population 4,901,000
Floristics 1600 species, 1516 of which occur south of 16°N (Lebrun, 1976, cited in
Appendix 1). The Tibesti Mountains in the extreme north are estimated to have 450 species
(Lebrun, 1960, cited in Appendix 1; Maire and Monod, 1950). Level of endemism not
known.
Flora with Saharan (north), Sahelian and Sudanian (south) affinities. The Tibesti
Mountains have Mediterranean, Saharan, Sahelian and Afromontane elements.
Vegetation Northern part of country desert with little or no permanent
vegetation. To the south, in the Sahelian zone, which has a short wet season, semi-desert
grassland gradually replaced by dry wooded grassland with Acacia species. Further south
the higher rainfall in the Sudanian Region supports woodland without characteristic
dominants. The Tibesti mountains in the north of the country support a distinct form of
montane vegetation, floristically rich and unrelated to the surrounding lowlands; it
consists of grassland, woodland and shrubland, with communities of Erica arborea
confined to narrow fissures on the higher peaks.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras The northern part of Chad, north of c. 16°N, is included in
Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and in the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des
Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes (Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980); both of these are cited
in Appendix 1. See also:
Carvalho, G. and Gillet, H. (1960). Catalogue raisonné et commenté des plantes de
l’Ennedi (Tchad Septentrional). J. Agric. Trop. Bot. Appl. 7: 49-96, 193-240,
317-378. (With 12 black and white photographs.)
Lebrun, J.-P., Audru, J., Gaston, A. and Mosnier, M. (1972). Catalogue des Plantes
Vasculaires du Tchad Meéridional. Etude Botanique No. 1, Institut d’Elevage et de
Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Maisons-Alfort. 289 pp. (Annotated
checklist covering only the tropical southern part of Chad, but including a useful
botanical bibliography.)
Lebrun, J.-P. and Gaston, A. (1976). Premier supplément au ‘‘Catalogue des Plantes
Vasculaires du Tchad Méridional’’. Adansonia, Sér. 2, 15(3): 381-390.
Lebrun, J.-P. and Gaston, A. (1977). Second supplément au ‘‘Catalogue des Plantes
Vasculaires du Tchad Méridional’’. Publ. Cairo Univ. Herb. 7-8: 109-114.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 49 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
including R:10, nt:4; no information for the rest.
Additional References
Gaston, A. (1980). La Végétation du Tchad (Nord-Est et Sud-Est du Lac Tchad):
Evolutions Recentes sous des Influences Climatiques et Humaines. Institut d’Elevage
et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Maisons-Alfort. (Colour map
1:1,000,000 covering about a quarter of Chad with unpublished descriptive thesis of
333 pp.)
Gillet, H. (1968a). Le peuplement végétal du massif de l’Ennedi (Tchad). Mém. Mus.
Nat. Hist. Nat. Paris, n.s. B, 17. 206 pp. (With 66 black and white photographs.)
69
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Gillet, H. (1968b). Tchad et Sahel Tchadien. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 54-58.
Lebrun, J.-P. (1983). La flore des massifs Sahariens: espéces illusoires et endémiques
vraies. In Killick, D.J.B. (1983), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 511-515.
Maire, R. and Monod, Th. (1950). Etudes sur la flore et la végétation du Tibesti. Mém.
IFAN 8. 140 pp., plus appendix.
Pias, J. (1970). La Végétation du Tchad: Ses Rapports avec les Sols; Variations
Paléobotaniques au Quaternaire. Trav. Doc. ORSTOM 6. 47 pp. (With coloured
vegetation map 1:1,500,000.)
Quézel, P. (1958). Mission botanique au Tibesti. Mém. Inst. Rech. Sahariennes 4.
357 pp. (Notes on the distribution of over 500 species, description of vegetation; 30
black and white photographs.)
Chatham Islands
An isolated group of islands c. 800 km east of South Island, New Zealand. The main
islands (Chatham and Pitt) are surrounded by numerous islets, some of which are no more
than precipitous rocks. Chatham (963 sq. km) is mostly low lying but reaches about 270 m
in the south. It is geologically heterogenous, with schists, sandstones, limestones, and
basaltic tuffs in the south. Pitt Island is more rugged and mainly basaltic. Blanket peat
covers much of both Chatham and Pitt; several peat domes on Chatham. Some of the
outlying islets, and parts of Pitt Island, are nature reserves. The Chatham Islands are
administered by the New Zealand Department of Maori and Island Affairs.
Area 1235 sq. km
Population 751 (1981)
Floristics c. 300 vascular plant species (Devine, 1982); 35-40 endemic taxa (Given,
1984, in litt.); 2 endemic genera (Embergeria and Myosotidium).
Vegetation The original vegetation was probably a mosaic of Karaka
(Corynocarpus) forest, swamp forest, and Tarahinau (Dracophyllum) forest in the
lowlands, with mixed broadleaved forests in the uplands. Sporadanthus moorland and
bogs were also extensive. Relatively intact natural vegetation occurs on the Southern
Tablelands of the main island, but elsewhere vegetation has mostly been cleared for
agriculture, or modified by draining, grazing and fires. By the end of the 1960s some 57 sq.
km of Tarahinau forest remained, mainly on Chatham Island, together with 22 sq. km of
Sporadanthus bog (Devine, 1982).
Checklists and Floras The Chatham Islands are included in the Flora of New
Zealand (1961, 1970, 1980), cited under New Zealand. See also:
Mueller, F. (1864). The Vegetation of the Chatham-Islands. Melbourne. 86 pp.
(Includes descriptive accounts of 87 vascular plant species.)
Information on Threatened Plants Given (1976, 1977, 1978), cited under New
Zealand, includes 8 data sheets on threatened species from the Chatham Islands. The Red
Data Book of New Zealand (Williams and Given, 1981), cited under New Zealand,
includes data sheets on 9 species. Myosotidium hortensia is included in The IUCN Plant
Red Data Book (1978). See also:
70
Chatham Islands
Given, D.R. (1983). Monitoring and science - the next stage in threatened plant
conservation in New Zealand. In Given, D.R. (Ed.), Conservation of Plant Species
and Habitats. Nature Conservation Council, Wellington. Pp. 83-101. (Lists 7
‘endangered’ and 8 ‘vulnerable’ Chatham Island taxa, including non-endemics;
population sizes indicated.)
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:6, V:4, R:6; non-endemic taxa rare or threatened
worldwide - V:4, R:1, I:1 (world categories).
Additional References
Cockayne, L. (1902). A short account of the plant-covering of Chatham Island. Trans.
N.Z. Inst. 34: 243-325.
Devine, W.T. (1982). Nature conservation and land-use history of the Chatham
Islands, New Zealand. Biol. Conserv. 23: 127-140.
Several surveys have been undertaken since 1970, and are the subject of a number of
unpublished reports by the Botany Division, DSIR, Christchurch, including:
Given, D.R. and Williams, P.A. (1985). Conservation of Chatham Island Flora and
Vegetation. DSIR, Christchurch, 123 pp.
Kelly, G.C. (in prep.). Distribution and ranking of remaining areas of indigenous
vegetation in the Chatham Islands. Department of Land and Surveys Resource
Inventory. (Includes map with extended legend; not seen.)
Chile
Area 751,626 sq. km
Population 11,878,000
Floristics Over 5500 species of vascular plants (M. Mujfioz, 1984, pers. comm.).
Endemism over 50% at specific level (Fuenzalida, 1984), and 16% at generic level (Mufioz,
pers. comm.). (Toledo, 1985, cited in Appendix 1, quoting from Gajardo-Michell, 1983,
reports 4758 recorded species, 2698 of them endemic.) Floristic affinities with California,
New Zealand, Tasmania and New Caledonia (Mufioz, pers. comm.).
Vegetation Very diverse due to Chile’s extreme north-south length and high
altitudes. In the north, a very dry region, which includes the Atacama Desert; vegetation
varies from none on the northern coast to the Loma Formation (see under Peru) and
deciduous scrub on the western side of the Andes; at high altitudes and on high plateaux,
very dry puna and salt marsh communities. In Central Chile a Mediterranean climate
permits growth of broadleaved evergreen shrubland in the south, and lowland and
submontane forest on the Andean slopes. Much of central Chile is cultivated. In the
southern third of the country, the only temperate rain forest in South America, the
Valdivian forest, which is dense and rich in epiphytes (Unesco, 1981, cited in Appendix 1).
In the extreme south, including Tierra del Fuego, temperate and subpolar evergreen moist
forest and high Andean meadows. Native forests, home of many of the endemic plants,
now cover only 10% of the country (Fuenzalida, 1984).
Checklists and Floras That part of Chile north of the Tropic of Capricorn (nearly
1500 km, from just north of Antofagasta) is covered by the family and generic
monographs of Flora Neotropica, described in Appendix 1. Chilean Floras are:
71
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Johow, F. (1948). Flora de Zapallar. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 49: 1-566.
Muifioz P., C. (1959). Sinopsis de la Flora Chilena: Claves para la identificacién de
familias y géneros. Edit. Univ. Chile, Santiago. 500 pp. (Generic vascular flora, but
including 248 illus. of species; includes botanical bibliography of Chile.)
Reiche, K.F. (1886-1911). Flora de Chile. Cervantes, Santiago. (6 vols, incomplete.)
See also:
Moore, D.M. (1983). Flora of Tierra del Fuego. Nelson, U.K., and Missouri Botanical
Garden, U.S.A. 396 pp.
Navas Bustamente, L.E. (1973-1979). Flora de la Cuenca de Santiago de Chile, 3 vols.
Edit. Univ. Chile, Santiago.
Rodriguez, R.R., Matthei, O. and Quezada, M. (1983). Flora Arborea de Chile.
Universidad de Concepcién. 408 pp. (87 species described including their uses;
vegetation types and their endemics.)
See also Boelcke, Moore and Roig (1985), under Argentina.
Field-guides
Donoso, C. (1974). Dendrologia: Arboles y Arbustos Chilenos. Facultad de Ciencias
Forestales, Universidad Austral de Chile. Manual 2. 142 pp.
Donoso, C. (1981). Arboles Nativos de Chile: Guia de Reconocimiento. Alborada,
Valdivia, Chile. (51 species listed with distribution maps.)
Hoffmann, A. (1980, 1982). Flora Silvestre de Chile: Zona Central (1980); Zona
Austral (1982). Fundacién Claudio Gay, Santiago. 255 pp. (Colour illus., plants
arranged by flower colour.)
Muiioz P., C. (1966). Flores Silvestres de Chile. Edit. Univ. Chile. 245 pp. (51 colour
photos.)
Muijioz Schick, M. (1980). Flora del Parque Nacional Puyehue. Edit. Univ. Santiago.
557 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants See below, in particular Mujfioz P. (1973):
Mujfioz P., C. (1973). Chile: Plantas en Extincién. Edit. Univ. Chile, Santiago. 248 pp.
(58 species described with illustrations, uses.)
Muifioz P., C. (1967). La extincién de especies vegetales en Chile. In La Conservacion
de la Naturaleza y la Prensa en la America Latina. Instituto Mexicano de Recursos
Naturales Renovables, México. Pp. 75-82.
Muiioz P., C. (1975). Especies vegetales que se extinguen en nuestro pais. In Capurro,
L. and Vergara, R. (Eds), Presente y Futuro del Medio Humano. Capitulo XI:
161-179. Edit. Cont. CECSA, México.
F.M. Schlegel of the Institute of Silviculture, Valdivia, has prepared a list of the areas high
in endemism and diversity most urgently needing conservation. Threatened plants are
mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular C.
Mufioz Pizarro on endangered plants of Chile (pp. 252-256), H.E. Moore Jr. on
endangerment in palms (pp. 267-282), P. Ravenna on threatened bulbous plants
(pp. 257-266).
Unpublished lists also include:
Marticorena, C. (1980). Threatened plants and areas of Chile. Universidad de
Concepcion. (List of threatened plants of the continent and the Islas of Mas a
Tierra, Mas Afuera, Santa Clara, San Felix and San Ambrosio.)
72
Chile
Muifioz P., C. (1975). I. Areas Naturales: localidas y regiones de Chile dignas de
proteccion. II. La extincién de especies vegetales. In 2a Jorn. Latinoam. de Parques
Nacionales. SAG, Minist. Agric., Vifia del Mar. 23 pp.
Schlegel Sachs, F.M. (1982). Especies Chilenas Amenazadas. Univ. Austral de Chile.
(List of threatened plants including Ex:9, E:53, V:15, R:42.)
Laws Protecting Plants Two plant species are protected as Natural Monuments:
Araucaria (Araucaria araucana) under Law No. 29, 9 February 1976, published 26 April
1976, and Alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) under Law No. 490, 1 October 1976, published 5
September 1977. Several laws on the exploitation of species are mentioned in Mufioz P.
(1973), cited above. The U.S. Government has determined Fitzroya cupressoides, confined
to Chile and Argentina, as ‘Threatened’ under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
Voluntary Organizations
Comité Nacional pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora, Casilla 3675, Huerfanos 972,
Oficina 508, Santiago.
Instituto de Ecologia y Evolucién, Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdivia.
Sociedad de Vida Silvestre, Valdivia.
Botanic Gardens
Arboretum (Institute of Silviculture), Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 853,
Valdivia.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Carl Skottsberg’’, Instituto de la Patagonia, Casilla 102-D, Punta
Arenas, Magallanes.
Jardin Botanico Hualpen, Departamento de Botanica, Universidad de Concepcién,
Casilla 1367, Concepcion.
Jardin Botanico (Instituto de Botanica), Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567,
Valdivia.
Jardin Botanico Nacional, Casilla 683, Vifia del Mar.
Useful Addresses
Corporaci6n Nacional Forestal (CONAF), Avenida Bulnes 285-5° Piso, Santiago.
(Includes Departamento Areas Silvestre Protegidas.)
Facultad de Ciencias Biolégicas y de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Concepcion,
Casilla 2407, Apdo 10, Concepcion.
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Casilla 787, Santiago.
Universidad Austral de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Casilla 853, Valdivia.
CITES Management Authority: Autoridad Administrativa de Chile para CITES,
Servicio Agricola y Ganadero, Avda. Bulnes 285-5° Piso, Casilla 4088, Santiago.
CITES Scientific Authority: Comisién Nacional de Investigacién Cientifica y
Technolégica (CONICYT), Canada 308, Santiago.
Additional References
Borgel O., R. (1973). The coastal desert of Chile. In Amiran, D.H.K. and Wilson,
A.W. (Eds), Coastal Deserts: Their Natural and Human Environments. Univ.
Arizona Press, Tucson. Pp. 111-114.
Fuenzalida, M. (1984). Evaluation of native forest destruction in the Andes of South
Central Chile: conservation alternatives. Project Proposal to IUCN from Comité
Nacional Pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora, Santiago, Chile.
Gajardo-Michell, R. (1983). Sistema Basico de Clasificacién de la Vegetacién Nativa
Chilena. Corporacion Nacional Forestal. Universidad de Chile. 4 partes. (Not seen.)
Pisano, E. and Fuenzalida, H. (1950). VIII. Biogeografia. Geografia Econémica de
Chile CORFO 1: 271-428. (Includes one vegetation map.)
73
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Ramirez, C, (1984). Bibliografia vegetacional de Chile. Universidad Austral, Valdivia.
Veblen, T.T., Delmastro, R.J. and Schlatter, J.E. (1976). The conservation of Fitzroya
cupressoides and its environment in southern Chile. Envir. Conserv. 3(4): 291-301.
Veblen, T., Schlegel, F. and Oltremari, J. (1983). Temperate broadleaved evergreen
forest of South America. In Ovington, J.D. (Ed.), Temperate Broadleaved
Evergreen Forest. Elsevier. Pp. 5-31.
Yudelevich, M., Brown, C.H., Elgueta, H. and Calderon, S. (1967): Clasificacién
preliminar del bosque nativo de Chile. Inst. Forestal, Inf. Téc. 27: 1-16. (2 maps.)
China
Area 9,597,000 sq. km
Population 1,051,551,000
Floristics About 30,000 vascular plant species (Yii, 1979), including about 7000
tree species (quoted in NCC, 1982). 15,000 species occur in tropical and subtropical
regions, of which 7000 are in Yunnan (NCC, 1982). Of the 2980 flowering plant genera,
214 are endemic (including 9 gymnosperm genera). Centres of endemism include eastern
Sichuan/western Hubei, south-east Yunnan/western Guangxi, and the western
Sichuan/north-west Yunnan centre abutting Burma, Laos and Viet Nam (Ying Tsiin-Shen
and Zhang Zhi-Song, 1984). Western Yunnan and south-east Tibet are particularly rich in
Rhododendron and Primula spp.
Vegetation Tropical evergreen rain forest in lowland parts of Yunnan and
Guangdong Provinces and on eastern side of Hainan Island. Mangrove forests along the
southern coasts (Chien, Wu and Chen, 1956). Temperate deciduous forests, subtropical
evergreen and monsoon forests in the south; evergreen, semi-evergreen and mixed
broadleaved deciduous forests on limestone in the tropical and subtropical zones of the
south; various types of subarctic -coniferous forest (‘taiga’) and cold temperate mixed
forests in the north. The most extensive tracts of natural forest are in the north-east and
the south-western provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. Western China, the vast plains of
north-east China and Inner Mongolia are largely semi-arid grassland whereas there are
deserts and semi-deserts in the Gobi and Tibetan regions. North China, including southern
Dongbei and parts of Inner Mongolia, are mainly arable. Northern Dongbei is steppe
grassland though converted in part to farmland. Fuelwood cutting, overgrazing and
deforestation have left only remnants of primary forest cover in more remote areas and on
steep terrain. There are over 1.2 million sq. km of ‘‘fully-stocked forests’’ including
afforested areas (FAO, 1982); probably more land has recently been afforested than in any
other country in the world (see Smil, 1983, for a report on the afforestation programme).
For a more comprehensive account of vegetation, and map at scale 1:14,000,000, see Hou
(1983). For more detailed vegetation map see:
China Vegetation Commission (1979). Vegetation Map of China (1:4,000,000) and
accompanying booklet, Legend to the ‘‘Vegetation Map of China’’ (edited by H.Y.
Hou). Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Botany, Beijing. 12 pp.
74
China
Checklists and Floras
Chen, Y. (1957). Illustrated Manual of Chinese Trees and Shrubs. Science Technology
Press, Shanghai. (Revised edition, in Chinese; accounts of 2100 native and
introduced taxa.)
Chinese Academy of Sciences (1971-1976). Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum,
5 vols. Science Press, Beijing. (Keys, line drawings, descriptions of 8000 of the more
common and economically important species; in Chinese. 2 Supplements - 1982,
1983.)
Flora Plantarum Herbacearum Chinae Boreali-Orientalis (1958- ). 8 vols so far. (Keys,
line drawings, descriptions of herbaceous plants; in Chinese.)
Inner Mongolia Botanical Records Compiling Group (1977-1982). Flora
Intramongolica, 6 vols. Typis Intramongolicae Popularis, Huhhot. (In Chinese.)
Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica (1959- ). Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae.
Science Press, Beijing. (80 vols planned, 93 families treated so far in 33 volumes; in
Chinese.)
Shun-Ching Lee (1935). Forest Botany of China. Commercial Press, Shanghai.
Supplement (1973). Chinese Forestry Association Taipei, Taiwan. (In English.)
Xinjiang and Gansu are covered in Grubov (1963- ), cited in Appendix 1. The north-west
steppe region is included in Norlindh (1949, cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants Sheng Cheng-kui, of the Hortus Botanicus
Nanjing, reports on a preliminary national threatened plant list compiled under the joint
auspices of the Environment Protection Agency, the Chinese Botanical Society and the
Editorial Commission of the Chinese Floras (in Threatened Plants Committee - Newsletter
No. 7: 5-6, 1981).
A First National List of Chinese Threatened Plants was published in April 1982 under the
auspices of the National Environmental Protection Agency and the Botanical Institute of
Academia Sinica. It lists 354 species of vascular plants, organized in three sections. The
first lists the species in conservation rating order (1, 2 or 3), the second in systematic order,
the third geographically, by Provinces.
A Red Data Book of Chinese rare and endangered species is due to be published in 1985
(English translation). The book will cover the 354 species (9 ferns, 68 gymnosperms and
277 angiosperms) with details on their distribution, ecology, present status in the wild and
conservation measures, with colour plates and a map for each species.
Voluntary Organizations
WWFE-China Joint Committee, c/o The Environmental Protection Office of the State
Council, Beijing.
Botanic Gardens
Beijing Botanical Garden, Academia Sinica, Beijing, Hebei.
Desert Botanical Garden, Minching, Gansu.
Gangnan Arboretum, Shongyu, Jiangxi.
Guilin Botanical Garden, Yanshan, Guilin, Guangxi.
Hangzhou Botanical Garden, Yuquan, Hangzhou, Zhejiang.
Heilongjiang Forestry Botanical Garden, Renjiaqiao, Harbin, Heilongjiang.
Kunming Botanical Garden, Academia Sinica, Heilongtan, Kunming, Yunnan.
Lushan Botanical Garden, Hanpoku, Lushan, Jiangxi.
Shanghai Botanical Garden, Longwu Road, Shanghai 201102.
Shenyang Botanical Garden, Shenyang, Liaoning.
18)
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
South China Botanical Garden, Academia Sinica, Longyandong, Guangzhou,
Guangdong.
Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Botanical Garden, Nanjing, Jiangsu.
Wuhan Botanical Garden, Wuhan, Hubei.
Xi’an Botanical Garden, Ciuhua Road, Xi’an, Shaanxi.
Xishuang Banna Tropical Botanical Garden, Mengla, Xishuang Banna, Yunnan.
Zhejiang Institute of Subtropical Crops, Wenzhou, Zhejiang.
For an illustrated account of Chinese botanical gardens and arboreta see:
Yu Dejun (Ed.) (1983). The Botanical Gardens of China. Science Press, Beijing.
319 pp. (Covers 21 gardens and arboreta.)
See also:
Sheng Cheng-kui (1981). Directory of Chinese botanical gardens. Hortus Botanicus
Nanjingensis. (Lists 16 gardens with details of size, number of taxa, research
interests, publications and associated herbaria. 15 other gardens, arboreta and plant
introduction stations are also listed.)
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: The People’s Republic of China, Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora Import and Export Administrative Office, Ministry of
Forestry, Hepingli, Beijing.
CITES Scientific Authority: Endangered Species Scientific Commission of the People’s
Republic of China, 7 Zhongguancun Lu, Haidian, Beijing.
Additional References
Bohlin, B. (1949). A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Distribution of Vegetation
in Inner Mongolia, Kansu and Ching-Hai. Report of the Scientific Expedition to
NW Provinces, China, 33. Stockholm. 95 pp.
Chien, S.S., Wu, C.Y. and Chen, C.T. (1956). The vegetation types of China. Acta
Geogr. Sinica 22: 87-92.
Duke, J.A. and Ayensu, E.S. (1985). Medicinal Plants of China, 2 vols. Reference
Publications, Algonac, Michigan. 670 pp. (Covers 1240 species; includes English and
Chinese names; notes on uses; line drawings.)
FAO (1982). Forestry in China, FAO Forestry Paper 35. FAO, Rome. 305 pp.
Hou, H.-Y. (1983). Vegetation of China with reference to its geographical distribution.
Annals Missouri Bot. Gard. 70(3): 509-549.
NCC (1982). Nature Conservation Delegation to China, 4-24 April 1982. Nature
Conservancy Council, London. 44 pp. (See in particular M.E.D. Poore on
vegetation, pp. 29-33 and D.A. Ratcliffe on nature conservation, pp. 34-37.)
Smil, V. (1983). Deforestation in China. Ambio 12(5): 226-231. (Causes and extent of
forest losses; analysis of afforestation projects.)
Walker, E.H. (1941). Plants collected by R.C. Ching in southern Mongolia and Kansu
Province, China. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 38(4): 563-675.
Wang, Chi-Wu (1961). The Forests of China with a Survey of Grassland and Desert
Vegetation. Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 313 pp.
Ward, F. Kingdon (1935). A sketch of the geography and botany of Tibet, being
materials for a Flora of that country. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 50: 239-265. (Useful
introduction to botany and vegetation of Tibet.)
Wu Zheng-Yi ef al. (Eds) (1980). Vegetation of China. Science Press, Beijing. (In
Chinese.)
76
China
Ying Tsiin-Shen and Zhang Zhi-Song (1984). Endemism in the flora of China - studies
on the endemic genera. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 22(4): 259-268. (In Chinese,
with English summary; maps showing distribution of endemic genera.)
Yi, T.-T. (1979). Special report: status of the Flora of China. Syst. Bot. 4(3): 257-260.
Christmas Island
An External Territory of Australia, situated in the eastern Indian Ocean, at 10°30’S and
105°30’E. It consists of an elevated series of coral limestone and volcanic rocks. The
central plateau is mostly 150-250 m above sea-level but rises to 361 m in a series of cliffs
and terraces. 16 sq. km of the island were declared a National Park in 1979.
Area 135 sq. km
Population 3184 (1980 estimate, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics c. 380 flowering plant species, of which c. 280 native species; about 15
endemic flowering plant species (L. Forman, 1984, pers. comm.). The flora has affinities
with Java, S.E. Asia, Australia and the western Pacific Islands.
Vegetation Mixed closed forest above 180 m and occasionally extending down to
coastal terraces, with Tristiropsis, Dysoxylon, Cryptocarya and Barringtonia in the main
canopy, and Eugenia, Planchonella and Hernandia as emergents; Celtis, Terminalia and
Pisonia forest on coastal terraces. Mining of phosphate deposits has devastated much of
the island’s rain forests (Mitchell, 1974).
Checklists and Floras Christmas Island will be covered in a forthcoming volume
of the Flora of Australia (1981- ), cited under Australia. Forman et al. have prepared a
checklist of the flowering plants (1984, manuscript, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew). See
also:
Baker, E.G., Rendle, A.B., Gepp, A., Blackman, V.H. and Lister, A. (1900). Botany.
In Andrews, C.W. (Ed.), A Monograph of Christmas Island. British Museum
(Natural History), London. Pp. 171-200.
Mitchell, B.A. (1974). The forest flora of Christmas Island. Commonwealth Forestry
Review 53(1): 19-29.
Ridley, H.N. (1906). The botany of Christmas Island. J. Straits Branch Royal Asiatic
Soc. 45: 156-271. (Lists 34 endemic species, many subsequently reduced to
synonymy. For additional notes see ibid., 48: 107-108.)
Information on Threatened Plants A preliminary list of endemic taxa with notes
on their conservation status is given in Leigh ef a/. (1981), cited under Australia. In 1983,
D. Powell prepared a preliminary list of endemics with notes on distribution and status.
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:1, V:1, R:11, I:1, K:2.
Additional References
Gray, H.S. (1981). Christmas Island Naturally: The Natural History of an Isolated
Oceanic Island. Gray, Geraldton, W. Australia. (Covers fauna, vegetation, impact
of man.)
77
Clipperton Island
The most easterly of the French Polynesian islands in the south-east Pacific. It is a remote
uninhabited atoll of 5 sq. km at longitude 10°18’N and latitude 109°13’W. The nearest
atoll is Pukapuka in the Tuamotu Archipelago, about 2500 km to the south-west.
Clipperton is a low coral limestone ring enclosing a lagoon with a 29 m high volcanic plug.
Parts of the island have been mined for phosphate (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
31 flowering plant taxa, all of which are widespread herbs, apart from introduced
coconuts (Sachet, 1962 a & b).
References
Sachet, M.-H. (1962a). Flora and vegetation of Clipperton Island. Proc. Calif. Acad.
Sci. IV, 31(10): 249-307. (Includes enumeration of native and introduced species;
notes on localities and distributions.)
Sachet, M.-H. (1962b). Geography and land ecology of Clipperton Island. Atoll Res.
Bull. 86. 115 pp. (Includes plant list.)
Coco, Isla del
Isla del Coco or Cocos Island is an uninhabited island of area 24 sq. km, with several
offshore islets, 670 km south-west of Costa Rica and 630 km west of the Galapagos in the
eastern Pacific Ocean, 5°32’N 87°04’W. It is an outcrop of the Cocos Ridge, comprising
volcanic basalts and marine sediments which have been uplifted by tectonic activity. The
highest point is 849 m (Cerro Iglesias). Isla del Coco is administered by Costa Rica.
Floristics 155 vascular plant taxa, including introductions; c. 10% species
endemism (figures quoted by Fournier, 1966). The flora is related to that of Central
America, the Caribbean and the Galapagos Islands.
Vegetation The main island has closed tropical rain forest with Cecropia,
Brosimum, Ochroma (Balsa), epiphytes and lianas; cloud forest above 500 m with
Lauraceae, bromeliads, orchids and ferns; littoral communities with Erythrina and
introduced coconuts; extensive Nephrolepis scrub near the shore and small areas of
brackish marshes. The offshore islets are sparsely vegetated.
Although Isla del Coco was declared a National Park in 1978, introduced plants and
grazing animals continue to be a threat to the native flora.
Checklists and Floras
Fosberg, F.R. and Klawe, W.L. (1966). Preliminary list of plants from Cocos Island.
In Bowman, R.I. (Ed.), The Galapagos: Proceedings of the Galapagos International
Project of 1964. University of California Press, Berkeley. Pp 187-189. (Checklist of
148 vascular plant taxa; separate list of lower plants.)
Stewart, A. (1912). Expedition of the California Academy of Sciences to the Galapagos
Islands, 1905-1906. V. Notes on the botany of Cocos Island. Proc. California Acad.
Sci., 4. 1: 375-404. (Enumeration of 22 taxa of ferns and 52 flowering plants
collected during expedition; list of further 9 ferns and 6 flowering plants recorded
from the island.)
78
Coco, Isla del
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Useful Addresses
Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de Agriculture y Ganaderia, CP 10094, San
José, Costa Rica.
Additional References
Fournier, L.A. (1966). Botany of Cocos Island, Costa Rica. In Bowman, R.I. (Ed.),
The Galapagos: Proceedings of the Galapagos International Project of 1964.
University of California Press, Berkeley. Pp 183-186. (Notes on vegetation and
origin of flora.)
Coco Islands
The Coco Islands comprise Table Island, Great Coco and Little Coco, c. 175 km north of
the Andaman Islands in the Eastern Indian Ocean, between latitudes 13-15°N and at
longitude 93°21’E. The highest point is 100 m, on Great Coco. Total land area c. 5 sq. km.
The islands are dependencies of Burma.
Prain (1891) recorded dense tropical rain forest on all islands, with coconuts and
Pandanus along the coasts, and mangrove swamps along creeks. No details of current
status.
296 flowering plant taxa, one gymnosperm (Cycas rumphii) and 10 fern taxa; most are
widespread throughout South East Asia (Prain, 1891).
References
Prain, D. (1891). The vegetation of the Coco group. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 60:
283-406. (Vegetation, floristic analyses, annotated list with notes on distributions.)
Cocos Islands
The Cocos Islands are an External Territory of Australia, situated in the east Indian
Ocean. They are coral atolls 3700 km west of Darwin and 300 km south of Java. Area 14
sq. km; population 487 (1980 census, Times Atlas, 1983).
Cocos I. (12°S, 96°E) is mainly covered by coconut plantations; Keeling I. has a mixture
of coconuts, Pisonia grandis and Cordia subcordata scrub. 57 vascular plant species of
which c. 43 indigenous (Renvoize, 1979, quoting figures by Wood-Jones, 1912). The
Cocos Islands will be included in a forthcoming volume of the Flora of Australia (1981- ),
cited under Australia.
References
Hemsley, W.B. (1885). List of plants from the Keeling or Cocos Islands. In Report on
the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years
1873-76. Botany, vol. 1, part 2. HMSO, London. (List of 19 flowering plant species,
p. 113.)
i
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Renvoize, S.A. (1979). The origins of Indian Ocean island floras. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 107-129.
Wood-Jones, F. (1912). Coral and Atolls. Reeve, London.
Colombia
Area 1,138,914 sq. km
Population 28,110,000
Floristics Prance (1977) estimates 45,000 species of flowering plants; 3000 species
of Orchidaceae alone (Ospina, 1969). Areas rich in endemics are the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, the Guajira Peninsula, La Macarena, many parts of the Andes, and, above
all, the Choco Region in western Colombia; this is the wettest and possibly the richest rain
forest in the neotropics, with both high species diversity and high endemism, concentrated
in two or three distinct centres (Gentry, 1982). Some 1500 endemic species have been
recorded and many new species are being discovered with additional exploration.
According to E. Forero (1984, pers. comm.), destruction or conversion of tropical forests
is causing high rates of extinction in the Sierra de la Macarena, in the Pacific coastal
region, in the Sierra Nevada d’ Santa Marta from sea level to the paramo and the slopes of
the Andes.
Vegetation Extending the length of the Pacific coast is very wet tropical rain
forest (includes Choco region). The Atlantic coast varies from humid forest near Panama
to dry forest and desert at Guajira Peninsula. Extending inland to 250 km, vegetation
ranges from mangroves (along Uraba coast), grassland/savanna to scattered thorn thickets
and cactus scrub (Espinal and Montenegro, 1963). This region has been heavily disturbed
by grazing and agriculture. Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) gives estimates for present
forest extent; Myers also quotes Gentry to state that a considerable area has been disturbed
at the southern end of the Choco and where the northern extension borders Panama at the
Darien Gap.
Central highlands: great variation in vegetation types; submontane forest to 2000 m; at
2400-3600 m cloud forests rich in epiphytes; above, very humid montane forest to paramo;
above 4500 m, on the high peaks of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, alpine tundra rich
in endemics (‘superparamo’).
Eastern plains: in the northern region to the Venezuelan border, tall grassland with
broadleaved evergreen trees along river corridors.
In the south, Amazonian forest, little disturbed and little known botanically (Forero, pers.
comm.). Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) quotes estimates of entent varying from
386,000 sq. km (1972) to 270,000 sq. km (1977). According to FAO/UNEP (1981),
estimated rate of deforestation (for Colombia overall) of closed broadleaved forest 8200
sq. km/annum out of 464,000 sq. km.
Checklists and Floras Colombia is covered by the family and generic monographs
of Flora Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1).
80
Colombia
In 1982, the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional, began a multi-volume
Flora of Colombia. Published so far are Vol 1, Magnoliaceae, by G. Lozano-C. (1983) and
Vol. 2, Connaraceae, by E. Forero (1983).
Individual family treatments include:
Cuatrecasas, J. (1958- ). Prima Flora Colombiana. Webbia 12, 13, 15, 24.
(Burseraceae, Malphigiaceae, Compositae-Astereae.)
Idrobo, J.M. (1954). The Xyridaceae of Colombia. Caldasia 6: 183-260. (345 species.)
Leonard, E.C. (1951-1958). The Acanthaceae of Colombia. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 31:
1-781.
Smith, L.B. (1957). The Bromeliaceae of Colombia. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 33: 1-311.
Smith, L.B. and Fernandez-Perez, A. (1954). The Violaceae of Colombia. Caldasia 6:
83-181.
Smith, L.B. and Schubert, B.G. (1946). The Begoniaceae of Colombia. Caldasia 4:
3-38, 77-107, 179-209.
Standley, P.C. (1931). The Rubiaceae of Colombia. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 7:
1-175.
See also:
Castaneda, R.R. (1965). Flora del centro de Bolivar. Universidad Nacional de
Colombia, Bogota. 437 pp. (Line drawings.)
Espinal T., L.S. (1964). Algunos Aspectos de la Vegetacién del Oriente Antiogueno.
1.G.A.C., Bogota. 74 pp. (Describes 31 trees and shrubs of Antioguefio region,
photos, uses of woods.)
Garcia Barriga, H., Forero, E. et al. (1966-1979). Catalogo Ilustrada de las Plantas de
Cundinamarca, 7 vols. Universidad Nacional, Bogota.
Machecha Vega, G. and Echeverri Restrepo, R. (1983). Arboles del Valle del Cauca.
Lithografia Arco, Bogota. 208 pp.
Since 1973, the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Institute for Natural Sciences at the
National University of Colombia have carried out collaborative field work in the western
Choco region. E. Forero and A.H. Gentry are now completing a plant checklist for the
Choco Department. The Institute, with the Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands, have
been undertaking a survey of montane Colombia. Details of other floristic work in
Colombia is given by Prance (1979, cited in Appendix 1). Floristic knowledge of the Choco
region is summarized by Gentry (1978), cited in Appendix 1.
Toledo (1985, cited in Appendix 1) refers to the following regional Floras as in progress:
Paramo de Oroque by H. Garcia-Barriga, Santander del Sur by F. Llanos and A. Renteria,
and Providencia by D.D. Soejarto.
In 1964 the governments of Colombia and Spain agreed to publish the Flora de Mutis,
consisting of illustrations prepared by the Real Expedicion Botanica del Nueva Reyno de
Grenada between 1783 and 1816. 7 vols completed so far, an additional 93 vols expected by
1992.
Information on Threatened Plants The National University of Colombia is
preparing an endangered species list for Colombia, described, with many examples, in:
Fernandez-Pérez, A. (1977). The preparation of the endangered species list of
Colombia. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 117-127.
Threatened plants are mentioned in several other papers in:
81
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular J.T.
Mickel on rare and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore Jr. on
endangerment in palms (pp. 267-282), P. Ravenna on rare and threatened bulbs
(pp. 257-266).
Laws Protecting Plants Decreto Ley No. 2811 of 18 December 1974, the National
Renewable Natural Resources and Environment Protection Code (D.O. 27 January 1975)
authorizes INDERENA, the government conservation agency, to establish rules for the
use, trade and conservation of wild plants (and animals). Acuerdo No. 38, promulgated by
INDERENA on 10 September 1973, establishes rules governing conservation and
utilization of wild plants, including licensing requirements for collection and commerce,
and rules for propagation (Fuller and Swift, 1984, cited in Appendix 1).
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacién Nacional para la Defensa de la Naturaleza, Apdo Aéreo 6227, Cali.
Sociedad Colombiana de Ecologia, Calle 59 No. 13-83, Of. 302, Bogota.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Guillermo Pifieres’’, Apto Aéreo 5456, Cartagena.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Joaquin Antonio Uribe’’, Carrera 52 No. 73-298, Apto Aéreo
51-407, Medellin, Antioquia.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘José Celestino Mutis’’, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Carrera 66-A
No. 56-84, Bogota.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Juan Maria Céspedes’’, Tulua, c/o Instituto Vallecaucano de
Investigaciones Cientificas (INCIVA), Apto Aéreo 5660, Cali.
Jardin Botanico Universidad de Tolima, Ibague, Colombia.
Jardin de la Facultad Agronomia, Universidad de Caldas, Apto Aéreo 275, Manizales,
Caldas.
Useful Addresses
Asociacién Colombiana de Herbarios, c/o Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales,
Apto Aéreo 1226, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia. (19 Colombian
herbaria are members.)
Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional, Apdo Aéreo 7495, Bogota.
Instituto Nacional de los Recursos Naturales Renovables y del Ambiente
(INDERENA), Gerente General, Diagonal 34, Numero 5-18, Apdo Aéreo 13458,
Bogota.
CITES Management Authority: INDERENA, see above.
Additional References
Cuatrecasas, J. (1958). Aspectos de la vegetacién natural de Colombia. Rev. Acad.
Colombiana Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales 10(40): 221-268. (Lists vegetation
types, major representative species, photos.)
Espinal T., L.S. and Montenegro M., E. (1963). Formaciones Vegetales de Colombia:
Memoria Explicativa sobre el Mapa Ecolégico. Instituto Geografico ‘‘Agustin
Codazzi’’, Bogota. 201 pp. (Includes descriptions of vegetation types, locations,
photos, diagrams and 4 vegetation maps at 1:1,000,000, each covering a quarter of
the country.) Updated 1977 as Zonas de vida o Formaciones Vegetales de Colombia
(Map in 21 ‘planchas’ at 1:500,000.)
Gentry, A.H. (1982). Phytogeographic patterns as evidence for a Chocé Refuge. In
Prance, G.T. (Ed.) (1982), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 112-136.
82
Colombia
Ospina, M. (1969). Colombian orchids and their conservation. In Corrigan, M.J. (Ed.),
Proceedings of the 6th World Orchid Conference. Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia. Pp. 95-98.
Prance, G.T. (1977). Floristic inventory of the tropics: where do we stand? Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 64(4): 659-684.
Schultes, R.E. (1951). La riqueza de la flora Colombiana. Rev. Acad. Colombiana
Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales 8(30): 230-242.
Comoro Islands
The Comoro Islands, an archipelago of four small islands (Njazidja, Mayotte, Anjouan,
and Mohéli), together with numerous islets and coral reefs, lie between the east African
coast and northern Madagascar, roughly 300 km from each, 11°20’-12°40’S, 43°-45°E.
The islands are volcanic in structure; Mt Karthala on Njazidja (Grande-Comore) is still
active and is the highest peak at 720 m. One of the islands, Mayotte, is a collectivité
territoriale of France.
Area 2238 sq. km
Population 443,000
Floristics 935 species (416 indigenous), with 136 endemic (Voeltzkow, 1917).
Floristic affinities with Madagascar.
Vegetation Native lowland plants almost all completely destroyed on all four
islands. Very little intact upland forest remains on Anjouan and Mayotte islands.
However, there is considerable forest on upper slopes of Njazidja and Mohéli, but much
of this is badly degraded (Fosberg and Sachet, 1972, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras The Comoros are included in the incomplete Flore de
Madagascar et des Comores, cited under Madagascar.
Voeltzkow, A. (1917). Flora und Fauna der Comoren. In Reise in Ostafrika in den
Jahren 1903-1905. Wiss. Ergeb. 3(5): 429-480. (Checklist with distributions; the only
important inventory for the archipelago.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Additional References
Legris, P. (1969). La Grande Comore. Climats et végétation. Trav. Sect. Sci. Techn.
Inst. Franc. Pondichéry 3(5): 1-28. (With coloured vegetation map 1:100,000.)
Congo
Area 342,000 sq. km
Population 1,695,000
Floristics Flora very poorly known; c. 4000 species (Bouquet, 1976); insufficient
evidence for assessment of endemism, but likely to be comparable with Gabon (c. 22%).
83
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
The western portion of the northern forests are said to be especially diverse (Myers, 1980,
cited in Appendix 1).
Floristic affinities Guinea-Congolian.
Vegetation Large areas of both lowland rain forest and swamp forest, and forest
interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivation. Estimated rate of deforestation for
closed broadleaved forest 220 sq. km/annum out of 213,400 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1), quoting Unesco (1978), gives a figure of
100,000 sq. km of forest, of which 30,000 sq. km is evergreen.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras
Descoings, B. (1961). Inventaire des plantes vasculaires de la République du Congo
déposées dans I’herbier de |’Institut d’Etudes Centre-Africaines 4 Brazzaville.
Institut d’Etudes Centre-Africaines (ORSTOM), Brazzaville. 63 pp. (Unpublished
mimeograph; list of 1600 names.)
Bouquet (1976) mentions a new checklist in preparation, due to be finished in 1975 (his
paper was presented in 1974), but it is not clear if this was ever published.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 17 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no
categories assigned.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Secrétariat Général aux Eaux et Foréts, B.P. 98,
Brazzaville.
CITES Scientific Authority: Secrétariat Général 4 l’Economie Forestiére, B.P. 98,
Brazzaville.
Additional References
Bouquet, A. (1976). Etat d’avancement des travaux sur la Flore du Congo-Brazzaville.
In Miége, J. and Stork, A.L. (1975, 1976), cited in Appendix 1. P. 581.
Farron, C. (1968). Congo-Brazzaville. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 112-115.
Cook Islands
The Cook Islands, a self-governing territory associated with New Zealand, comprise 15
islands and atolls in the South Pacific Ocean, between latitudes 17-25°S and longitudes
155-165°W. The southern Cooks are over 1000 km south-east of the Samoan Archipelago.
Area 241 sq. km; population 19,000.
The northern Cooks are low atolls, some of which still retain areas of native vegetation,
e.g. Palmerston I., Penrhryn (Tongareva), Rakahanga and Suwarrow (Douglas, 1969,
cited in Appendix 1). The southern Cooks are mainly volcanic, reaching 643 m at Te
Manga on Rarotonga. Upland forests above 250 m are largely intact (Sykes, 1983).
‘Makatea’ (raised limestone) surrounds most of the low islands in the Ngaputoru Group
and Mangaia, supporting open forest. Lowland forests almost totally destroyed. Coconuts
84
Cook Islands
abundant on all islands especially the atolls and lower areas of volcanic islands (W.R.
Sykes, 1984, in litt.).
No overall figure for the Cook Islands but 560 vascular species recorded on Rarotonga
(Wilder, 1931). No endemic genera (van Balgooy, 1970, cited in Appendix 1). Floristic
affinities to the Society Islands. No information on threatened plants.
References
Brownlie, G. and Philipson, W.R. (1971). Pteridophyta of the southern Cook Group.
Pacific Science 25: 502-511. (Annotated list of 80 taxa; notes on habitats,
frequency.)
Cheeseman, T.F. (1903). The flora of Rarotonga, the chief island of the Cook Group.
Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot., Ser. 2 6: 261-313.
Fosberg, F. R. (1972). List of vascular plants of Rarotonga. Atoll Res. Bull. 160: 9-14.
(Checklist of 50 vascular plant taxa collected in 1969.)
Philipson, W.R. (1971). Floristics of Rarotonga. Bull. Roy. Soc. N.Z. 8: 49-54.
Stoddart, D.R. and Fosberg, F.R. (1972). Reef islands of Rarotonga. List of vascular
plants. Atoll Res. Bull. 160. 14 pp.
Sykes, W.R. (1983). Conservation on South Pacific islands. In Given, D.R. (Ed.),
Conservation of Plant Species and Habitats. Nature Conservation Council,
Wellington, N.Z. Pp. 37-42.
Wilder, G.P. (1931). Flora of Rarotonga. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop. Mus. 86. 113 pp.
Coral Sea Islands
The Coral Sea Islands are a scattered group of 32 coral sand islands (cays) and coral reefs
c. 300 km east of the Queensland coast and c. 200 km east of the Great Barrier Reef. The
islands are situated in the Coral Sea between 147°-152°E and 12°-25°S. The highest point
is 7 m, on Willis Island (150°E 16°S). None of the islands have a resident population, but
there is a storm warning station on Willis Island (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1). The
islands are an External Territory of Australia.
Most of the islands have no vegetation; a few are covered by scrub (Douglas, 1959, cited in
Appendix 1). The only published checklist of the flora is that of 7 vascular plant taxa
collected from Willis Island (Davis, 1923).
References
Davis, J.K. (1923). Willis Island, a Storm Warning Station in the Coral Sea, 5. 199 pp.
Critchley Parker, Melbourne. (Geography, climatology; checklist of vascular plants
with notes on distribution. Not seen; citation from Frodin.)
85
Costa Rica
Area 50,899 sq. km
Population 2,534,000
Floristics Costa Rica, for its size, may have the most diverse plant life anywhere
in the world. It is a biogeographical land bridge where the floras of North and South
America meet. Gentry (1978, cited in Appendix 1) estimates 8000 higher plant species;
L.D. Gomez P. (1984, pers. comm.) estimates 10,000, of which 1500 are orchids and 1800
trees; 1393 taxa are believed endemic (IUCN figures). Even more staggering is-that the
730 ha La Selva Reserve contains 1500 recorded species of vascular plants (Hammel and
Grayum, 1982).
Vegetation Accounts of the vegetation are given by Janzen (1983), who
distinguishes 14 major tropical plant formations, and Gomez (1983b), who identifies 40
vegetational units in Costa Rica. Natural vegetation is entirely forest and woodland except
for the high paramo on the highest peaks of the Cordillera de Talamanca and for the
savannas on unusual volcanic soils. Moist and wet tropical forests occupy 48% of the
forested land, mainly along the cordilleras and on Peninsulas Nicoya and Osa. Other types
of forest are the semi-deciduous tropical dry forest (in the northwestern Pacific lowlands)
and the floristically diverse montane forests. Also present are mangrove and swamp
forests.
By the 1960s logging and deforestation had destroyed over half the natural forest;
estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 650 sq. km/annum out of
16,380 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981); 5671 sq. km (11%) protected in parks and reserves,
one of the highest percentages in the world.
Checklists and Floras Costa Rica is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project,
described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). The country Floras are:
Burger, W. (Ed.) (1971- ). Flora Costaricensis. Fieldiana Bot. 35, 40; and Fieldiana
Bot. new series 4, 13. (34 families so far.)
Standley, P.C. (1937-1938). Flora of Costa Rica. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser.
18(1-4). 1616 pp. (Complete systematic list of gymnosperms and flowering plants.)
See also:
Hartshorn, G.S. and Poveda, L.J. (1983). Checklist of Trees. In Janzen, D.H. (Ed.),
Costa Rican Natural History. Univ. of Chicago Press, Illinois. Pp. 158-183.
(Vegetation map and checklist of trees.)
Holdridge, L.R. and Poveda, L.J. (1975). Arboles de Costa Rica, Vol. 1. Centro
Cientifico Tropical, San José. 546 pp.
Janzen, D.H. and Liesner, R. (1980). Annotated checklist of plants of lowland
Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, exclusive of grasses and non-vascular
cryptograms. Brenesia 18: 15-90.
Field-guides
Allen, P.H. (1956). The Rain Forests of Golfo Dulce. Univ. of Florida Press,
Gainesville. 417 pp. (Keys to 433 species, mainly trees, in southern Costa Rica, some
illustrated.)
There are also a few illustrated field guides to trees in national parks.
86
Costa Rica
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The List of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa - Ex:4, E:53, V:205, R:135, 1:10, K:907, nt:79; non-endemics rare and
threatened worldwide - E:7, V:33, R:18, I:2 (world categories).
43 threatened plants are listed in Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited in
Appendix 1. Threatened plants are also mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104), J.T. Mickel on rare
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore Jr. on endangerment in palms
(pp. 267-282).
Laws Protecting Plants Fuller and Swift (1984, cited in Appendix 1) outline legal
controls on the export of ornamental plants and their parts. They also report that the
Departamento de Vida Silvestre is currently reviewing draft legislation to regulate exports
of wild orchids. The U.S. Government has determined Jatropha costaricensis, a plant
confined to Guanacaste Province in Costa Rica, as ‘Endangered’ under the U.S.
Endangered Species Act.
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacion Costarricense para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza (ASCONA), Apdo
8-3790, 1000 San José.
Centro Agrondémico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE), Turrialba.
Fundacion de Parques Nacionales, Apdo 236, Cod. 1002, San José.
Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San
José.
Programa Patrimonio Natural de Costa Rica, c/o Fundacion de Parques Nacionales,
Apdo 236, Cod. 1002, San José; and Apdo 103, Plaza Gonzalez Viquez, San José.
Tropical Science Center, Apdo 8-3870, San José.
Botanic Gardens
Lankester Botanical Garden, Escuela de Biologia Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad
Universitaria ‘‘Rodrigo Facio’’, San José.
Useful Addresses
Herbario Nacional de Costa Rica, Museo Nacional, P.O. Box 749, San José.
CITES Management Authority: Direccién General Forestal, Departamento de Vida
Silvestre, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Apdo 10094, San José.
CITES Scientific Authority: Colegio de Biologos de Costa Rica, Universidad de Costa
Rica, Ciudad Universitaria “‘Rodrigo Facio’’, San José.
Additional References
Beebe, S. (1984). A model for conservation. The Nature Conservancy News 34(1): 4-7.
Burger, W.C. (1980). Why are there so many kinds of flowering plants in Costa Rica?
Brenesia 17: 371-388. (Summary of recent papers on floristic diversity in Costa Rica,
with references.)
Gomez P., L.D. (1983a). Vegetation and Climate of Costa Rica, 2 vols. Editorial
Universidad Estatal a Distancia (EUNED), San José. (18 maps, 1:200,000.)
Gomez P., L.D. (1983b). Vegetation map of Costa Rica, 1:200,000. Fundacion Parques
Nacionales, San José.
Hammel, B.E. and Grayum, M.H. (1982). Preliminary report on the Flora Project of
La Selva Field Station, Costa Rica. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 69: 420-425.
87
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Janzen, D. (1983). Costa Rican Natural History. Univ. of Chicago Press, Illinois.
816 pp.
Knight, P. (1964). The great oaks of Costa Rica. IUCN Bull., new series No. 13,
Oct/Dec. Pp. 6-7.
Tosi, J.A., Jr. (1969). Republica de Costa Rica Mapa Ecolégico. Instituto Geografico
Nacional, San José.
Cuba
Area 114,524 sq. km
Population 9,966,000
Floristics 7000 species of gymnosperms and flowering plants of which 4000 are
endemic (Conde, 1952); 6000 species, almost 50% endemic (Alain, 1962, pers. comm.,
quoted in Prance, 1977).
Vegetation Semi-desert of thornbush and savannah vegetation up to the
mountain edges; siliceous savannah in the west; montane evergreen and tropical cloud and
rain forest with pine forest in the east and in the west. Species-rich pine forests on
serpentine soils. Submontane rain forest along north-east, and semi-dry mountain forest
along the south-east coast, with mangrove and tropical salt marsh along the west coast.
11% forested (FAO, 1974, cited in Appendix 1); estimated rate of deforestation for
broadleaved closed forest 20 sq. km/annum, from a total of 12,550 sq. km (FAO/UNEP,
1981); according to Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1), about 16,000 sq. km of tropical
moist forest remain.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). The Flora is:
Leon, H. and Alain, H. (1946-63). Flora de Cuba, 5 vols and suppl. (by A.H. Liogier).
Published variously: Vols 1-3 - Cultural, SA La Habana; Vol. 4 - Museo de
Historia Natural de la Salle, La Habana; Vol. 5 - Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio
Piedras. (In Spanish; some black and white photographs.) Additional species are
listed as a series ‘Novedades de la Flora Cubana’ in various publications including
Rev. Soc. Cubana Bot. 5 (1948); Phytology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences 11:
47-53 (by B.P. Kitanov, 1979); Contr. Mus. Hist. Nat. Col. la Salle, No. 9: 1-24
(1950); Candollea 17: 99-111, 113-121 (1960); there are also Polish, E. German,
Hungarian and Russian references subsequent to Vol. 5 of the Flora.)
Mufiiz, O. and Borhidi, A. (1982). Catalogo de las Palmas de Cuba. Acta Botanica
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 28(3-4): 309-345.
See also:
Borhidi, A. and Kerezty, Z. (1979). New names and new species in the Flora of Cuba
resp. Antilles. Continued as: New names and new species in the Flora of Cuba II,
by A. Borhidi (1980); New names and new species in the Flora of Cuba and Antilles
III, by A. Borhidi (1983). Acta Botanica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae
25(1-2): 1-37; 26(3-4): 255-275; 29(1-4): 181-215.
Borhidi, A. and Mufiiz, O. (1979). Notas sobre taxones criticos o nuevos de la flora de
Cuba. Acta Botanica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 25(1-2): 39-52.
88
Cuba
Duek, J.J. (1971). Lista de las especies Cubanas de Lycopodiophyta, Psilotophyta,
Equisetophyta y Polyodiophyta (Pteridophyta). Adansonia, ser. 2, 11:
559-578, 717-731.
For an account of botanical work in Cuba, with bibliography of botanical papers
1960-1976, addresses of herbaria and reports of a new Flora, see:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Current work on the flora of Cuba - A commentary. Taxon
26: 417-423.
Current work on the flora of Cuba is also published in the following journals:
Revista del Jardin Botdnico Nacional, Habana. 1980, Vol. 1-.
Wiss. Zeitschr. Univ. Jena Mat. -Naturwiss. (28: 541-724 in particular).
The papers of the 3rd Symposium on the Flora of Cuba, and a working report, will be
published in Feddes Repertorium 96(7-10), due out by the end of 1985.
Information on Threatened Plants
Borhidi, A. and Muiiiz, O. (1983). Catalogo de Plantas Cubanas Amenazadas o
Extinguidas. Edit. Academia. 85 pp. (Lists 959 species of gymnosperms and
flowering plants threatened or extinct, including 832 endemics, with their
distribution by provinces and assignment into categories ‘rare’, ‘endangered’ and
‘extinct’ - non-compatible with IUCN categories.)
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book has two data sheets for Cuba, on Cereus robinii and
Microcycas calocoma. Threatened plant conservation is also discussed in:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Conservation and the endangered species of plants in the
Caribbean islands. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 105-11
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico de Cienfuegos, Apto 414, Cienfuegos.
Jardin Botanico de la Habana, Calle 26 e/c Puentes Grandes y Ave. Boyeros, Habana.
Jardin Botanico Nacional de Cuba, Universidad de la Habana, Carretera del Ricio Km
3.5, Calabazar, Habana.
Additional References
Borhidi, A. and Mufiz, O. (1980). Die Vegetationskarte von Kuba. Acta Botanica
Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 26(1-2): 25-53. (In German.)
Borhidi, A., Mufiiz, O. and Del Risco, E. (1979). Clasificacién fitocenologica de la
vegetacién de Cuba. Acta Botanica Scientiarum Hungaricae 25(3-4): 263-301. (In
Spanish.)
Borhidi, A., Muniz, O. and Del Risco, E. (1983). Plant communities of Cuba, 1. Acta
Botanica Hungarica 29(1-4): 337-376.
Conde, J.A. (1952). La Flora de Cuba. Memorias de la Sociedad Cubana de Historia
Natural. Univ. Habana. Organo Oficial de Museo Poev. Facultad de Ciencias.
Vol. 21 no. 1. (In Spanish.)
Friedrich Schiller Universitat (1979). Zur Flora von Kuba. Wiss. Zeitschr. Univ. Jena
Mat.-Naturwiss 28: 541-724. (Collection of 28 papers on aspects of the Cuban flora,
in German and Spanish, and bibliography of papers published since 1975 by
members of the Flora-Cuba Project.)
Muniz, O. (1970). Endemismo en la Flora. In Atlas Nacional de Cuba. Havana. (The
Atlas contains a vegetation map and a lengthy discursive description of the
vegetation.)
89
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Prance, G.T. (1977). Floristic inventory of the tropics: Where do we stand? Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 64(4): 659-684.
Samek, V. (1968). La proteccién de la naturaleza en Cuba. Ser. Transform. Natur. 7:
1-23. Acad. Cienc. Cuba. (Not seen.)
Smith, Earl, E. (1954). The Forests of Cuba. Maria Moors Cabot Foundation
Publication No. 2. 98 pp., 3 maps. (Includes classification of forests based on
floristic, edaphic and moisture criteria; descriptions of regional forests with species
lists; illus.)
Cyprus
Area 9254 sq. km
Population 659,000
Floristics c. 2000 vascular plant species, including naturalized aliens, calculated
from the Flora of Cyprus (Meikle, 1977, 1985). 116 endemic vascular taxa (IUCN figures).
Vegetation Dominant natural vegetation outside agricultural land is heavily
grazed garigue, with occasional patches of taller maquis. Remaining forest (c. 17% of land
area, Meikle, 1977, 1985) restricted to the mountains: the precipitous limestone Kyrenia
(northern) range supports large stands of Pinus brutia/Cupressus sempervirens forest on
the upper slopes and well-developed maquis on much of the northern slope; the
predominantly igneous Troddos (southern) range is also well forested with Pinus brutia on
lower slopes, replaced by Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana at higher levels. The Troddos also
supports many Cypriot endemics. Other important areas of floristic diversity: Akamas and
Karpas Peninsulas, in extreme north-west and north-east of the island respectively. The
few remaining wetlands, especially near Phasouri and Syrianokhori, support an interesting
aquatic flora.
Checklists and Floras Cyprus has benefited from one of the most detailed and
comprehensive Floras of recent years:
Meikle, R.D. (1977, 1985). Flora of Cyprus, 2 vols. Bentham-Moxon Trust, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, U.K. 832 pp, 1137 pp.
Cyprus will also be covered under the Med-Checklist (cited in Appendix 1). See also:
Chapman, E.F. (1949). Cyprus Trees and Shrubs. Cyprus Government Printing Office,
Nicosia. 88 pp. (Keys and descriptions.)
Osorio-Tafall, B.F. and Seraphim, G.M. (1973). List of the Vascular Plants of Cyprus.
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Nicosia.
Field-guides
Matthews, A. (1968). Lilies of the Field: A Book of Cyprus Wild Flowers. Published
by the author, P.O. Box 180, Limassol. 54 pp. (Colour photographs with text
describing c. 50 species, mostly common, a few endemic.)
Megaw, E. and Meikle, D. (1973). Wild Flowers of Cyprus. Phillimore, London. (A
handsome quarto book of 41 colour paintings of Cypriot plants by Elektra Megaw,
with short descriptive text by D. Meikle.)
Cyprus
Information on Threatened Plants No national Red Data Book, but the Ministry
of Agriculture and Natural Resources have prepared a list of 41 ‘rare plant species’ (M.A
Daniel, 1982, pers. comm.).
Cyprus is also included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit,
1983, cited in Appendix 1). The section on Cyprus is reprinted in Leon, 1983. Latest IUCN
statistics, based on the former: endemic taxa - E:10, V:9, R:22, 1:5, K:24, nt:46.
Laws Protecting Plants No legislation directly protects wild plants in Cyprus,
except those in State Forests which are protected by Forest Law No. 14 of 1967. Section
13(2) of this Law prohibits cutting, uprooting, collecting, or removal from State Forests of
any produce without authorization. ‘Forest produce’ includes timber and branches and all
parts of wild plants, mosses, fungi and lichens. According to the Ministry of Agriculture
and Natural Resources, ‘‘almost all’’ the 41 species on their rare plant list occur in State
Forests and so receive protection.
Outside these Forests only 4 species of crop plants have been granted any form of
protection: Rhus coriaria (Sumach), used in tanning Moroccan leather; 2 species of sage,
Salvia fruticosa (S. cypria, S. triloba) and S. willeana (S. grandiflora auct.).
Voluntary Organizations
Association for the Protection of the Cyprus Environment, P.O. Box 2444, Chanteclair
Building, Nicosia.
Useful Addresses
Cyprus Forest Association, c/o Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture and
Natural Resources, Nicosia.
Cyprus Herbarium, Department of Agriculture, Nicosia.
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Forest Department, Nicosia.
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: Ministry of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Nicosia.
Additional References
Holmboe, J. (1914). Studies on the vegetation of Cyprus. Bergens Museums Skrifter.
NY Raekke 1(2). 344 pp.
Ionnides, O. (1973). Nature conservation in Cyprus. Nature in Focus 14: 16-17.
Leon, C. (1983). [Cyprus:] Important Botanical Areas of High Conservation Value.
14 pp. Unpublished report, available from IUCN-CMC.
Czechoslovakia
Area 127,870 sq. km
Population 15,588,000
Floristics 2600-2750 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 10 endemics (IUCN figures), ‘at least 15’ according
to J. Holub (1984, in litt.). Centres of endemism include the Tatra Mts, KrkonoSe Mts,
Velka Fatra Mts and the karstic region of Slovensky Kras. Elements: Central European,
Pannonian and alpine.
91
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Vegetation Largely an agricultural and heavily industrialized landscape. The
remaining area, supporting semi-natural vegetation, largely covered by forests, mostly of
pine, oak and beech. Beechwoods well-developed, in Slovakia forming 32% of forest
cover (Polunin and Walters, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). Altitudinal vegetation zones still
apparent: at lowest levels relicts of riverine forest give way to broadleaved deciduous
woodland, but the latter extensively re-afforested by spruce and pine; at higher levels,
mixed coniferous and deciduous woodland; in subalpine zone montane pine, giving way to
alpine meadows. In warmer areas, steppe vegetation.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). National Floras:
Dostal, J. (1948-1950). Kvétena CSR. (Flora of Czechoslovakia.) Prirodovédecké
Nakladatelstvi, Praha. 2269 pp. (An illustrated key for all vascular plants; revised
edition in prep.)
Dostal, J. (1958). Klié k uplné kvétené CSR (Key to the complete flora of
Czechoslovakia), 2nd Ed. Ceskoslovenska Akademie Véd, Prague. 982 pp.
(Essentially a revised and condensed version of Dostal, 1948-1950; illus.)
Floras are also being prepared for the 2 Socialist Republics that comprise Czechoslovakia,
namely the Czech Socialist Republic (CSR - Bohemia and Moravia) and the Slovak
Socialist Republic (SSR - Slovakia):
Futak, J. (Ed.) (1966- ). Fidra Slovenska (Flora of Slovakia), 4 vols. Slovenska
Akadémia and Veda, Bratislava. (Incomplete; 1 - a morphological vocabulary; 2 -
pteridophytes and gymnosperms; 3 - angiosperms, edited by J. Futak and L.
Bertova; 4(1) - angiosperms, edited by L. Bertova.)
Hejny, S. and Slavik, B. (Eds) (in prep.). Fléra CSR (Flora of the Czech Socialist
Republic), 8 vols planned. Academia, Prague.
Checklists:
Dostal, J. (1982). Seznam cévnatych rostlin kvéteny Ceskoslovenské. Prazska botanicka
zahrada, Praha. 408 pp.
Novacky, I.M. (1954). Slovenska Botanickad Nomenklatura. Slovenska Akadémia Vied,
Bratislava. 227 pp.
See also:
Holub, J. (1974). Taxonomic and floristic progress on the Czechoslovak flora and the
contribution of Czechoslovak authors to knowledge of the European flora
(1961-1972). Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(1): 173-352.
Slavik, B. (1972). Preparation of the phytogeographical atlas of the Czech Socialist
Republic. Acta Ecol. Natur. Region 1: 24-28. (In Czech.)
Bibliographies:
Botanical Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ed.) (1978, 1980 and
1982). Bibliographia botanica Cechoslovaca 1973-1974, 1975-1976 and 1977-1978,
12 vols. Botanicky Ustav CSAV, Pruhonice. 563, 272 and 590 pp. (2 consecutive
authors: Z. Neuhcuslova-Novotna and D. Guthova-Jarkovska.)
Futak, J. and Domin, K. (1960). Bibliografia k flédre CSR. Slovenské Akadémia Vied,
Bratislava. 883 pp. (References to botanical literature published up to 1952.)
92
Czechoslovakia
National botanical journals: Preslia, Journal of the Czechoslovak Botanical Society
(address below) and Zprdvy Ceskoslovenské botanické spoleénosti, pti CSAV, Praha
(summaries in English).
Field-guides
Majovsky, J. and Krejéa, J. (1966-1977). Obrdzkovd kvétena Slovenska (Illustrated
Flora of Slovakia), 5 vols. Obzor, Bratislava. (Colour illus. for each species.)
Novak, F.A. and Svolinsky, K. (1940-1946). Rostliny (Wild flowers), 2 vols. Vesmir,
Praha.
Information on Threatened Plants Published threatened plant lists for both CSR
and SSR and a Red Data Book for CSR are listed below. These will provide the basis for
the national Red Data Book.
Czech Socialist Republic:
Cerovsky, J., Holub, J. and Prochazka, F. (1979). Cerveny seznam flory CSR (The
Red List of the CSR Flora). Pamdtky a Priroda 4: 361-378. (First draft list of
threatened vascular plants in the Czech Socialist Republic; includes 37 ‘extinct’ and
39 ‘missing’ taxa, 267 ‘critically threatened’ plants, 240 ‘strongly threatened’, 239
‘threatened’ and 330 rare taxa ‘in need of further study’; English summary.)
Holub, J., Prochazka, F. and Cefovsky, J. (1979). Seznam vyhynulych, endemickych a
ohrozZenych taxont vyssich rostlin kvéteny CSR (1. verze). (List of extinct, endemic
and threatened taxa of vascular plants of the flora of the Czech Socialist Republic
(first draft).) Preslia 51(3): 213-237. (English abstract and summary; same list as
previous paper; reviewed in Threatened Plants Committee - Newsletter, No. 6: 13,
1980.)
Prochazka, F., Cefovsky, J. and Holub, J. (1983). Chranéné a ohrozené druhy kvéteny
CSR (Protected and endangered species in the flora of CSR). UDPM, Praha.
103 pp.
Slovak Socialist Republic:
Maglocky, S. (1983). Zoznam vyhynutych endemickych a ohrozenych taxdnov vySSich
rastlin flory Slovenska (List of extinct, endemic and threatened taxa of vascular
plants of the flora of Slovakia). Biolégia 38: 825-852.
See also:
Cerovsky, J. and Podhajska, Z. (1981). Registrace kriticky ohrozenych druhu vySsich
rostlin v CSR (Registration of critically endangered plant species in the Czech
Socialist Republic). Pamdtky a Priroda 6: 577-583.
Hendrych, R. (1977). Zaniklé nebo nezvéstné rostliny nai kvéteny (Extinct or missing
plants of our flora). Ziva 25(3); 84-85.
Holub, J. (Ed.) (1981). Mizejici fléra a ochrana fytogenofondu v CSSR (The vanishing
flora and protection of the gene pool in Czechoslovakia). Proceedings from a
conference. Studie CSAV, 20. Academia, Prague. (See for example papers in Slovak
by: J. Futak on endemic plants of the SSR (pp. 45-49); in Czech by E. Hadaé on
endemic plants of the CSR (pp. 41-43); J. Holub on protection of the floristic
diversity from the aspect of taxonomy and phytogeography (pp. 27-39); K. Kubat on
threatened species in north-west Bohemia (pp. 133-137); F. Prochazka on extinct
species in the Czechoslovak flora (pp. 13-15); and L. Vané¢kova on extinct and
endangered species in the Moravian karst (pp. 139-141).)
93
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Somsak, L. (1977). Ohrozené a zriedkavé taxony horskych a vysokohorskych poloh
Slovenska (The threatened and rare taxa of the mountain range of Slovakia).
Bratislava.
Since 1981, the Nature Conservation Section of the State Institute for Protection of
Monuments and Conservation of Nature (address below) have co-ordinated a project
entitled Conservation of Rare and Endangered Plants and Animal Species. Aims include
issuing new species conservation decrees, ensuring all critically endangered species are
safeguarded in protected areas, re-introduction, using rare and threatened plants in soil
reclamation projects and ex situ conservation in botanic gardens (Cefovsky, 1982).
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - E:2, R:3, 1:2,
nt:3; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:1, V:19, R:11, I:6 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants Legislation prohibiting the uprooting of selected wild
species was passed for CSR by Decree No. 54 of 14 April 1958 and for SSR by Decree No.
211 of 23 December 1958. In the CSR, 108 taxa of ferns and flowering plants are so
protected; 100 of them receive complete protection and 8 partial protection. Some
complete genera are also covered (e.g. Aconitum, Orchis, Pulsatilla, Stipa). In the SSR,
88 taxa receive complete protection and 8 partial protection. In addition 40 species and
genera (Oxytropis, Salix) and one family (Orchidaceae) receive special legal protection
within the High Tatra National Park.
Furthermore, the districts of Dé¢in, Litoméfice and Usti nad Labem in the North
Bohemian region have passed their own legislation, which includes the protection of
several species not covered by the national legislation.
Relevant literature:
Bosackova, E. (n.d.). Chranené rastliny na Slovensku a podmienky ich ochrany
(Protected plants in Slovakia and protective measures). Vydalo VPL pre
Poverenictvo SNR pre kulturu a informacie. 6 pp.
Magic, D., Bosackova, E., Krejéa, J. and Usak, O. (1979). Atlas chranenych rastlin
(Field-guide of protected plants). Obzor, Bratislava. 260 pp. (Slovakia only.)
Prochazka, F. et al. (1983) cited in full above.
Randuska, D. and Krizo, M. (1983). Chranené rastliny (Protected plants). Priroda,
Bratislava. 430 pp.
Somsak, L. and Slivka, D. (1981). Chrdanené rastliny Slovenska (Protected plants in
Slovakia), 2nd Ed. Bratislava. (Illus.)
Vesely, J. (1961). Chranéné rostliny (Protected Plants), 2nd Ed. Orbis, Praha. 85 pp.
(Lists protected species and includes conservation status; colour illus.)
Voluntary Organizations
Ceskoslovenska botanicka spoleénost (Czechoslovak Botanical Society), Benatska 2,
128 01 Prague 2.
Cesky svaz ochrancu prirody (Czech Union of Nature Conservationists), Staroméstské
nam. 12, 110 00 Prague 1.
Slovensky zvaz ochrancov prirody a krajiny (Slovak Union of Nature and Landscape
Conservationists), Leningradska 1, 811 01 Bratislava.
Botanic Gardens Many, as listed in Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1,
although none subscribe to the IUCN Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body.
Relevant references:
94
Czechoslovakia
Setelova, V. et al. (1977). Botanické zahrady (Botanic Gardens). SPN, Prague. 280 pp.
Som8ak, L. (1979). The role of botanic gardens in the conservation of rare and
threatened plants in Slovakia. In Synge, H. and Townsend, H. (Eds), Survival or
Extinction. Proceedings of a Conference: The Practical Role of Botanic Gardens in
the Conservation of Rare and Threatened Plants, 11-17 September 1978. Bentham-
Moxon Trust, Kew. Pp. 107-112.
Vyskoéil, J. (1980). Chranéné rostliny v botanickych zahradach, jejich péstovant,
zakladani sbirek a vyuzivant v kulturné vychovné Cinnosti (Protected plants in
botanic gardens, their cultivation and use in educational activities). Proceedings of a
symposium 16-17 October 1980. Prazska botanicka zahrada, Praha-Troja. 135 pp.
Useful Addresses
Botanicky ustav CSAV (Botanical Institute, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences), 252
43 Pruhonice.
Institute of Experimental Biology and Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 885 34
Bratislava, Sienkiewiczova 1.
Statni ustav pamatkové péée a ochrany piirody (State Institute for Protection of
Monuments and Conservation of Nature), Valdstejnské nam. 4, 118 01 Prague 1.
Ustredie Statnej ochrany prirody (Centre of State Nature Conservancy - Slovakia), 031
01 Liptovsky MikulaS.
Additional References
Cefovsky, J. (1982). Botanisch-okologische Probleme des Arten-schutzes in der CSSR
unter Berucksichtigung der praktischen Naturschutzarbeit (Botanical and ecological
problems of species preservation in the CSSR with regard to practical conservation
work). Berichte der ANL 6: 90-92.
Hendrych, R. (1981). Bemerkungen zum Endemismus in der Flora der
Tschechoslowakei (Observations on endemism in the flora of Czechoslovakia).
Preslia 53(2): 97-120. (In German; English abstract; maps.)
Holub, J., Hejny, S., Moravec, J. and Neuhéusl, R. (1967). Ubersicht der hoheren
Vegetationseinheiten der Tschechoslowakei. Rozpravy CSAV, Rada Matematickych
a Prirodnich Véd 77(3): 1-75. (Phytosociological account.)
Plesnik, P. (1976). Die Vegetationsstufen in der Slowakei. 18 pp. (Maps.)
Prochazka, F. (1980). Soucasné zmény vychodoéeské fléry a poznadmky k rozsirent
chranénych druhu rostlin (Contemporary changes in the flora of eastern Bohemia
and notes on the distribution of protected species). Krajské Muzeum Vychodnich
Cech, Hradec Krdalové. 134 pp.
Vesely, J. (1961). Priroda Ceskoslovenska, jeji vyvoj a ochrana (Nature in
Czechoslovakia, its development and conservation). Osveta, Bratislava. 146 pp.
Denmark
Area 43,075 sq. km
Population 5,141,000
Floristics c. 1000 native vascular species (Lajtnant, 1984, in litt.); c. 1350-1450
estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; this
discrepancy principally due to a recent assessment that many species in Denmark, hitherto
95
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
believed native, are now recognized as longstanding introductions; 1 endemic species, | .
endemic subspecies (IUCN figures). Elements: Atlantic.
Vegetation 90% of land surface extensively modified, 70% by agriculture.
Remaining pockets of semi-natural vegetation include forests of oak (Quercus petraea and
Q. robur) and beech in the south and east, sand-dunes and salt-marshes mainly along the
west coast, scattered inland heaths, peat bogs, swamps and lakes. Wetlands are considered
to have suffered the greatest species loss and disturbance. Forests occupy about 10%, but
most are spruce and pine plantations (Poore and Gryn-Ambroes, 1980, cited in
Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras Included in the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). National Floras:
Christiansen, M.S. (1958-1961). Danmarks Vilde Planter, 2 vols. Branner og Korch,
Kgbenhavn. (Colour and line drawings.)
Hansen, K. (Ed.) (1984). Dansk Feltflora, 2nd Ed. Gyldendal, Kgbenhavn. 757 pp.
(Illus.)
Raunkiaer, C. (1950). Dansk Ekskursions-Flora, 7th Ed. by K. Wiinstedt. Gyldendal,
Kgbenhavn. 380 pp.
Rostrup, E. and Jorgensen, C.A. (1973). Den Danske Flora, en Populaer Vejledning til
at Laere de Danske Planter at Kende, 20th Ed. revised by A. Hansen. Gyldendal,
Copenhagen. 664 pp. (Line drawings.)
See also Lindman (1964), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Hagerup, O. and Petersson, V. (1956-1960). Botanisk Atlas, 2 vols. Munksgaard,
Kobenhavn. (Line drawings only; 1 - angiosperms; 2 - bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms; English edition published in 1963, Copenhagen.)
For a regional plant atlas see Hultén (1971), cited in Appendix 1, and the results of the
Danish Topographical-Botanical Investigation, published in Botanisk Tidskrift, 1935
onwards, containing dot maps for most Danish higher plants.
Relevant journals: Botanisk Tidskrift, Kobenhavn (now replaced by Nordic Journal of
Botany); Flora og Fauna, Naturhistorisk Museum, Aarhus; Urt (popular journal
published by the Danish Botanical Society; addresses below).
Information on Threatened Plants National plant Red Data Book:
Lojtnant, B. and Worsge, E. (1977). Forelabig Status over den Danske Flora. Reports
from the Botanical Institute University of Aarhus, No. 2. 341 pp. (Detailed survey
of status of over 200 native vascular plants in Denmark; line drawings; English
summary.)
For a revision of the above see:
Lgjtnant, B. (1985). Radliste over Danmarks Karplanter. Kobenhavn. 23 pp. (A revised
threatened plant list of Danish higher plants.)
See also:
Lgjtnant, B. (1980). Status over den danske flora. In Moller, H.S. et al. (Eds), Status
over den Danske Plante - og Dyreverden. Proceedings of a Symposium 18-20 April
1980. Miljoministeriet, Fredningsstyrelsen. Pp. 327-341. (Describes conservation
status and threats to the flora.)
96
Denmark
Denmark is included in the Nordic Council of Ministers’ threatened plant list and
supplements (Ovesen ef al., 1978 and 1982) and in the European list (Threatened Plants
Unit, 1983), both cited in Appendix 1; latest IUCN statistics, based upon the latter:
endemic taxa - R:2; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - V:6, R:1, I:2 (world
categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which included a data sheet on Thesium ebracteatum, Extinct in Denmark, status
unknown worldwide.
A computerized biological data-base is being developed by the National Agency for the
Protection of Nature, Monuments and Sites, Kabenhavn (address below). This will include
data about protected areas, threatened plants and habitats, as part of a larger biological
conservation data centre.
Laws Protecting Plants The Conservation of Nature Act (No. 297 of 26 June
1975) provides total protection for 2 plant species and partial protection for 26 other plant
taxa. The Ministry of the Environment may order the protection, throughout the country
or in specified areas, of any plant species. Species in nature reserves may also be protected
against picking, digging, etc., as part of nature reserve legislation. Some species are
protected administratively where they grow on land owned by the State and managed by
the National Agency for forests. For more details see Koester (1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Voluntary Organizations
Danmarks Botanisk Forening (Danish Botanical Society), Solvgade 83, 1307
Kgbenhavn.
Dansk Naturfredningsforening (Danish Nature Conservation Society), Frederiksberg
Runddel 1, 2000 Kabenhavn.
Verdensnaturfonden (WWF-Denmark), H.C. Andersens Boulevard 31, 1553
Kgbenhavn.
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Institute, University of Aarhus, 68 Nordlandsvej, 8240 Risskov.
Botanisk Have, Stadsgartnerens kontor, Viborgvej 144, 8210 Aarhus V.
Den Kgl. Veterinaer-og Landbohgjskoles Have, Biilowsvej 13, 1870 Kobenhavn V.
Forstbotanisk Have (Forest Botanic Garden), 2920 Charlottenlund.
Forest Botanical Garden, Aarhus.
Heorsholm Arboretum, 2970 Hersholm.
Keobenhavns Universitets Botaniske Have, @ Farimagsgade 2B, 1353 Kobenhavn K.
Useful Addresses
National Agency for the Protection of Nature, Monuments and Sites, Ministry of the
Environment, 13 Amaliegade, 1256 Kgbenhavn.
Naturhistorisk Museum, Universitetsparken, 8000 Aarhus C.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Fredningsstyrelsen, Miljoministeriet, 13
Amaliegade, 1256 Kobenhavn.
Additional References
Gravesen, P. (1976-1983). Forelabig Oversigt over Botaniske Lokaliteter, 4 vols.
Miljoministeriets Fredningsstyrelse i Samarbejde med Dansk Botanisk Forening,
Kobenhavn. (1 - Sjaelland; 2 - Den Fynske Ogruppe; 3 - Lolland, Falster, Mon og
Bornholm; 4 - Sgnderjyllands Amt (S. Jutland); describes hundreds of botanical
97
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
localities and assesses their conservation value as part of a long-term monitoring
programme; covers flowering plants, mosses, fungi, lichens and algae; protected
species; photographs; maps.)
Hansen, A. (1981). Dansk Botanisk Litteratur i 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978 og 1979. Bot.
Tidssk. 75(4): 221-275. (Review of recent botanical literature.)
D’Entrecasteaux Islands
Volcanic islands reaching 2400 m, situated c 30 km to the north of the eastern tip of Papua
New Guinea. Area 3142 sq. km; population 34,400 (1971 estimate, Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1974). The islands are part of Papua New Guinea.
The 3 principal islands of Normanby, Fergusson and Goodenough still have extensive
primary tropical rain forests. The archipelago is included on the Vegetation Map of
Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958) and on the vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984),
both covering the Flora Malesiana region at scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1.
No figure available for the size of the flora. No information on threatened plants.
Djibouti
Area 23,000 sq. km
Population 354,000
Floristics 534 species (Bavazzano, 1972). Degree of endemism unknown. In
general flora is poorly known, but likely to be rich especially in the Goda Mountains
(Verdcourt, 1968).
Floristic affinities with Somalia-Masai region.
Vegetation Mostly semi-desert grassland, shrubland and succulent scrub. Small
areas of mangrove vegetation and coastal desert at the coast. Small patches of montane
dry evergreen forest in Dai area of the Goda Mountains.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Djibouti is included in Enumeratio Plantarum Aethiopiae
Spermatophyta (Cufodontis, 1953-1972), and in Adumbratio Florae Aethiopicae, both
cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Bavazzano, R. (1972). Contributo alla conoscenza della flora del Territorio Francese
degli Afar e degli Issa. Webbia 26: 267-364. (Short diagnoses, specimen citations.)
Chevalier, A. (1939). La Somalie francaise. Sa flore et ses productions végétales. Revue
Bot. Appl. Agric. Trop. 19: 663-687.
Information on Threatened Plants Two species which occur in Djibouti are
included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978): Dracaena ombet and Livistona
carinensis (Syn. Wissmannia carinensis).
98
Djibouti
Detailed information is lacking, but desertification is threatening the succulent scrub.
Additional References
Chedeville, E. (1972). La végétation du Territoire francais des Afars et des Issas.
Webbia 26: 243-266.
Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. (1957). Una carta geobotanica dell’ Africa orientale (Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Somalia). Webbia 13: 15-132. (Includes map 1:5,000,000.)
Verdcourt, B. (1968). French Somaliland. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 140-141.
Dominica
The most mountainous island in the Lesser Antilles, in the Windward group, equidistant
between Guadeloupe and Martinique, 153 km south of Antigua; 47 km long by 24 km
wide; fertile and volcanic.
Area 751 sq. km
Population 77,000
Floristics About 1600 species of vascular plants (D.H. Nicolson, 1984, in litt.).
Nicolson also reports 6 species and 2 varieties endemic to the island (1 fern, 1
monocotyledon and 6 dicotyledons). Other reported endemics have become synonyms of
more widespread species or have been recently found on neighbouring islands.
Vegetation In the interior undisturbed, primary rain forest and lower montane
rain forest, surrounded by a broad intermediate zone of cut-over secondary forest; on
highest peaks elfin woodland; on steep slopes palm brakes; on the west (leeward) coast, a
belt of dry scrub woodland and, north of St Joseph, grassland and open scrub with grass;
at river mouths in north, swamp (Lonchocarpus) forest; mangrove rare, recently
discovered in Cabrits swamp. (Mainly from Beard, 1949, cited in Appendix 1.) 46.7%
forested, the highest percentage in the Caribbean, according to FAO (1974, cited in
Appendix 1). The 6840-ha Morne Trois Pitons National Park, in the south of Dominica,
includes elfin woodland, rain forest and secondary forest, and conserves the largest area of
such forest in the Lesser Antilles (Protected Areas Data Unit).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and
Windward Islands (only monocotyledons and ferns published so far, Howard, 1974-, cited
in Appendix 1) and by the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica (cited in
Appendix 1).
A Flora of Dominica, covering dicotyledons, has been prepared by D.H. Nicolson and
collaborators at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. and has been submitted
for publication; one family (Compositae) still to be written.
Ferns, gymnosperms and monocotyledons are covered in the checklist:
Hodge, W.H. (1954). Flora of Dominica, B.W.I., Part 1. Lloydia 17 (1-3): 1-238.
Also relevant:
99
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Beard, J.S. (1944). Provisional list of trees and shrubs of the Lesser Antilles.
Caribbean Forester 5(2): 48-67. (428 species assigned in a table to individual
islands).
Hodge, W.H. (1953). The orchids of Dominica, BWI. American Orchid Soc. Bull.
22(12): 891-904.
Stehlé, H. and Stehlé, M. (1947). Liste complémentaire des arbres et arbustes des
petites Antilles. Caribbean Forester 8: 91-123. (A further 328 species to Beard, 1944,
in similar format.)
There are also various papers on the botany of Dominica in Smithsonian Contributions to
Botany, particularly dealing with Algae, Lichens and Fungi.
Local botanical activity is centered at the facilities of the Dominica National Park
Headquarters, who have produced articles on vegetation of the Park.
Field-guides
Honychurch, P.N. (1980). Caribbean Wild Plants and Their Uses. Published by the
author, Roseau, Dominica. 163 pp. (Conspicuous plants only.)
Information on Threatened Plants Threatened plant conservation is discussed in:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Conservation and endangered species of plants in the Caribbean
Islands. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 105-114.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Gardens, Roseau. (Largely devastated by Hurricane David in 1978, now
recuperating.)
Useful Addresses
Dominica National Park Headquarters, Botanic Gardens, Roseau.
Forestry Department, Botanic Gardens, Roseau.
Additional References
Anon. (1970). Dominica: A chance for a choice. The Conservation Foundation,
Washington, D.C. 48 pp. Some considerations and recommendations on
conservation of the island’s natural resources.
Hodge, W.H. and Taylor, D. (1957). The ethnobotany of the Island Caribs of
Dominica. Webbia 12(2): 513-644.
Shillingford, C.A. (1968). Climax Forest in Dominica. M.Sc. Thesis, University of the
West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. (Comparative study of 2 examples of lowland rain
forest at D?Leau Gommier and Terre Ferme.)
Thorsell, J.W. and Wood, G. (1976). Dominica’s Morne Trois Pitons National Park.
Nature Canada 5(4): 14-16, 33-34.
Weber, B.E. (1973). Dominica National Park. Dept. of Recreation Resources, College
of Forestry and Natural Resources, Colorado State University. (Thesis.) (Lists some
plants endemic to Dominica in Table 3, p. 57.)
Dominican Republic
A mountainous country consisting of the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola;
west of Puerto Rico and east of Cuba.
100
Dominican Republic
Area 48,442 sq. km
Population 6,101,000
Floristics No figures for Dominican Republic; Hispaniola has an estimated 5000
species: 7 gymnosperms, 1087 monocotyledons and 3900 dicotyledons; with 1800 endemic
species (Liogier, 1984).
Vegetation In the centre of the island, along the east-west mountain ranges moist
forest, low moist forest and high mountain hardwood forest; Pinus occidentalis dominant
along the central ridge; extensive dry forest along the northern and southern lowlands, arid
in parts, with savannah type vegetation; stands of tree cacti and palms in places due to
heavy logging of hardwoods. Mangrove swamps best developed along the north-east coast
at Samana Bay where the low moist forest comes down to sea level. 22.7% forested (FAO,
1974, cited in Appendix 1); estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest
25 sq. km/annum, out of a total of 4440 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981); according to Myers
(1980) (cited in Appendix 1), c. 11,000 sq. km of tropical moist forest, most disrupted or
degraded.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1).
Liogier, A.H. (1981). Flora of Hispaniola. Part 1. Phytologia Memoirs 3: 1-218. (In
Spanish, illus.)
Liogier, A.H. (1982, 1984). La Flora de la Espanola, 2 vols published, the third in
press. San Pedro de Macoris. 317 pp., 420 pp., illus.
Moscoso, R.M. (1943). Catalogus Florae Domingensis. New York. 732 pp. (In Spanish;
checklist of gymnosperms and flowering plants.)
The following provide additional information:
Alvarez, V. (1983). Manglares de Republica Dominicana. Contribuciones 53.
CIBIMA/UASD - see Useful Addresses, below. (Describes mangroves.)
Dod, D.D. (1978- ). Orquideas Dominicanas Nuevas I-III. Moscosoa 1(1): 50-54; 1(2):
39-54; 1(3): 49-63.
Jiménez, J. de J. (1963-1967). Suplemento no. 1 al Catalogus Florae Domingensis del
Prof. Rafael M. Moscoso. Archiv. Bot. Biogeogr. Ital. 39: 81-132; 40: 54-149; 41:
47-87; 42: 46-97 and 107-129; 43: 1-18.
Jiménez, J. de J. (1975). Apuntes para la flora de Santo Domingo (Hispaniola)
Novedades III. Anuario Acad. Ciencias Republica Dominicana 1(1): 93-132a.
Liogier, A.H. (1971a). Novitates Antillanae. IV. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 21: 107-157.
Liogier, A.H. (1971b). Novitates Antillanae. V. Miscellaneous new species from the
Dominican Republic. Phytologia 22(3): 163-174.
Liogier, A.H. (1973). Novitates Antillanae. VI. Phytologia 25(5): 265-280.
Liogier, A.H. (1976). Novitates Antillanae. VII. Plantas nuevas de la Espajfiola.
Moscosoa 1(1): 16-49.
The botanical journal Moscosoa includes reports of new taxa, of new records and other
papers on the flora and vegetation of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. It is published by
the Jardin Botanico Nacional ‘Dr Rafael M. Moscoso’ - see Botanic Gardens, below.
Information on Threatened Plants
Jiménez, J. de J. (1978). Lista tentativa de plantas de la Republica Dominicana que
deben protegerse para evitar su extincién. Coloquio Internacional sobre la practica
de la conservacion, Santo Domingo. CIBIMA/UASD - see Useful Addresses,
101
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
below. (In Spanish; lists 133 species of threatened flowering plants, of which 49 are
endemic.)
Dr A.H. Liogier has prepared a lengthy list of endangered plants; this is not published.
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book has one data sheet for the Dominican Republic, on
Pseudophoenix ekmanii. Threatened plant conservation is also discussed in:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Conservation and the endangered species of plants in the
Caribbean Islands. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 105-114.
Voluntary Organizations
Sociedad Dominicana de Orquidiologia, c/o Jardin Botanico Nacional ‘‘Dr Rafael M.
Moscoso’’, Apto 21-9, Santo Domingo.
Sociedad Ecoldgica del Cibao, Santiago.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico Nacional ‘Dr Rafael M. Moscoso’, Apto 21-9, Santo Domingo.
Useful Addresses
Centro de Investigaciones de Biologia Marina, Universidad Autonoma de Santo
Domingo, Republica Dominicana (CIBIMA/UASD), Jonas E. Salk 56, Santo
Domingo.
Herbario Dr José de Js. Jiménez Almonte, Universidad Catdlica Madre y Maestra,
Santiago.
Additional References
Hartschorn, G. et al. (1981). The Dominican Republic, country environmental profile,
a field study. AID Contract No. AID/SOD/PDC-C-0247. JRB Associates, 8400
Westpark Drive, Mclean, Virginia 22102, U.S.A. 109 pp.
Holdridge, L.R., (1945). A brief sketch of the Flora of Hispaniola. In Verdoorn F.
(Ed.), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 76-78.
Jiménez, J. de J. and Liogier, A.H. (1977). Adiciones a los nombros vulgares de las
Plantas en la Republica Dominicana. Moscosoa 1(2): 9-21. (See Liogier, 1974.)
Liogier, A.H. (1974). Diccionario botdnico de nombres vulgares de la Espafiola. Jardin
Botanico Dr R. Moscoso, Santo Domingo. 813 pp.
Liogier, A. (1984). La Flora de la Espafiola: sus principales carateristicas. 2da. Joranda
Cientifica Academia de Ciencias de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo.
Zanoni, T.A., Long, C.R. and Mckiernan, G. (1984). Bibliografia de la flora y de la
vegetacion de la Isla Espafiola. Moscosoa 3: 1-61. (Extensive annotated bibliography
of the flora and the vegetation of Hispaniola.)
Easter Island
Easter Island (27°S, 109°30’W) is a triangular volcanic outcrop in the western Pacific
Ocean 3700 km west of Chile, of which it is a dependency. It is also known as Rapa-Nui
and Isla de Pascua. Area 117 sq. km; population 1400 (1971 estimate). The highest point is
Mt Terevaka (601 m), part of the extinct Rano Aroi volcano in the north. Rana Kao
(457 m) and Rano Raraku (427 m) form the south-west and south-east parts of the island.
102
Easter Island
Almost the entire population lives at Hanga-Roa on the west coast. Rapa-Nui National
Park, established in 1935, covers 68 sq. km mainly around the coast.
30 native flowering plant species of which 3 grasses and Sophora toromiro endemic
(Skottsberg, 1922). 12 species of ferns of which 2 endemic (Christensen and Skottsberg,
1920). Most genera and species have very wide distributions (van Balgooy, 1971, cited in
Appendix 1).
The vegetation is mainly Sporobolus and Stipa grassland. Sophora toromiro is the only
tree recorded on the island in historic times. Undoubtedly there were other trees before the
natural vegetation was modified by fires, timber cutting and the introduction of sheep.
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978) included Sophora toromiro as ‘‘probably
Extinct’’, the last tree on the island having died before 1962. Subsequently it was
discovered that small plants were in cultivation, principally at Géteborg Botanic Garden,
Sweden (see Threatened Plants Committee - Newsletter 5: 1-2, 1980).
References
Skottsberg, C. (Ed.) (1920-1956). The Natural History of Juan Fernandez and Easter
Island, 3 vols. Almqvist and Wiksells Boktryckeri AB, Uppsala. (1 - Physical
features, geology; 2 - botany; 3 - zoology. See in particular C. Christensen and
C. Skottsberg, 1920, on the ferns of Easter Island, ibid. 2: 47-53; C. Skottsberg,
1922, on phanerogams, ibid. 2: 61-84; C. Skottsberg, 1951, a supplement to the
pteridophytes and phanerogams, ibid. 2: 763-792.)
Ecuador
Area 461,477 sq. km
Population 9,090,000
Floristics Dodson and Gentry (1978) quote estimates ranging from 10,000 to
20,000 species of vascular plants. Many scientists consider Ecuador to have more plants
per unit area than any other country in South America; this is demonstrated by the over
1250 species from 136 families recorded in 100 of the 167 ha plot of Pacific lowland rain
forest at Rio Palenque Science Center; 43 are known only from the site (Dodson and
Gentry, 1978) and, with subsequent work, about 100 are newly described (A. Gentry,
1984, pers. comm.). Rio Palenque is within the Choco phytogeographic region, ‘‘that part
of the coastal lowlands of western Colombia and northwestern Ecuador covered by wet
and moist forest vegetation’’ and believed to be exceptionally rich in both endemics and
other species (Gentry, 1982).
Vegetation Between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, desert and semi-desert,
savanna, deciduous forest (dominated by thorny leguminous trees with cacti), semi-
deciduous forest (mostly now destroyed) and in the north lowland rain forest. Gentry
(1977) separates the lowland coastal forest into a narrow strip of wet forest along the base
of the Andes (originally small in extent, now critically endangered, the minute Rio
Palenque site (see above) being a rare survivor), and the coastal moist forest, more
extensive but with fewer endemics. In the Andes itself, lower montane rain forest
(700-2500 m), cloud forest (2500-3400 m), grass paramos (3400-4000 m), shrub and
cushion paramos (4000-4500 m) and desert paramos (4500 m to snow limit). In the
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Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Interandean valley the length of Ecuador, little natural vegetation remains; most is now a
mixture of steppe and scrub. In the lowlands east of the Andes, extensive lowland rain
forest, covering 135,000 sq. km of the Amazonian forest (Unesco, 1981, cited in Appendix
1). Most of this section from Harling (1979), which has a useful bibliography.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 3400 sq. km/annum out of
142,300 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Ecuador is covered by the family and generic monographs
of Flora Neotropica, as described in Appendix 1. The country Flora is:
Harling, G. and Sparre, B. (1973- ). Flora of Ecuador. 20 vols (28 families) published
so far, 7 vols in prep. Department of Systematic Botany, University of Géteborg,
and the Section of Botany, Riksmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden.
Floristic knowledge of the Pacific lowlands of Ecuador is summarized by Gentry (1978),
cited in Appendix 1. Floras for part of Ecuador and countrywide family accounts include:
Dodson, C.H. and Gentry, A.H. (1978). Flora of the Rio Palenque Science Center.
Selbyana 4(1-6): 1-628. (Tropical Wet Forest site, all species illustrated with
descriptions and keys, frequency, habitats and related species.)
Dodson, C., Gentry, A. and Valverde, F.M. (1984). Flora of Jauneche. Banco Central
del Ecuador and Selbyana 8: 1-512. (Tropical Moist Forest site, all species illustrated
with descriptions and keys, frequency, habitats and related species.)
Dodson, C. and Gentry, A. (in press for 1985). Flora of Capeira and the Guayaquil
region. Banco Central del Ecuador and Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. (Tropical Dry
Forest site, all species illustrated with descriptions and keys, frequency, habitats and
related species.)
Dodson, C. and Marmol, P. (1980-84). Orchids of Ecuador. cones Plantarum
Tropicarum 1-4: Plates 1-500; 5: Plates 501-600; 10: Plates 901-1000. (Illustrations
of orchids of western Ecuador, upland Ecuador, and upland and eastern Ecuador,
respectively, with descriptions and dot maps.)
Gilmartin, A.J. (1972). The Bromeliaceae of Ecuador. Phanerogamarum Monographiae
Tomus 4: 1-255.
Hitchcock, A.S. (1927). The grasses of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Contr. U.S. Nat.
Herb. 24(8): 291-556.
Little, E.L. (1969). Arboles comunes de la Provincia de Esmeraldas. FAO/SF: 76/ECU
13, Rome. 536 pp.
Standley, P.C. (1931). The Rubiaceae of Ecuador. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser.
7(2): 1-251.
Valverde, F.M. (1980). Flora de la Peninsula Santa Elena. Univ. Guayaquil Press.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. An
analysis of vegetation types with the most endangered species is:
Gentry, A.H. (1977). Endangered plant species and habitats of Ecuador and
Amazonian Peru. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 136-148.
Threatened plants are mentioned in other papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular J.T.
Mickel on rare and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328).
Other relevant literature:
104
Ecuador
Dodson, C. (1984). Orchids of Ecuador. (Unpublished list of 2200 orchids known to
occur in Ecuador of which 25 are Vulnerable, 2 Endangered and 7 Rare.)
Laws Protecting Plants Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas Naturales y
Vida Silvestre (Ley No. 74 of 14 August 1981, Registro Oficial 24 August 1981) governs
conservation and includes plants. The Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia is responsible
for implementation (Fuller and Swift, 1984, cited in Appendix 1).
Voluntary Organizations
Fundacion Natura, Jorge Juan 481, Casilla 243, Quito.
Botanic Gardens The Ecuadorian Orchid Society is establishing a botanic garden
outside Guayaquil. The Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia operate an orchid
collection and sanctuary at Vilcabamba in Loja province; plans exist for a similar
programme at Conocota near Quito.
Useful Addresses
Dept. de Biologia, Universidad Catdélica, Apdo 2184, Quito.
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Central, Quito.
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad de Guyaquil, Casilla 471, Guayaquil.
Museo Ecuatoriana de Ciencias Naturales, Casa de la Cultura, Quito.
CITES Management Authority: Director Ejecutivo del Programa Nacional Forestal,
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Casilla 2919, Quito.
Additional References
Acosta-Solis, M. (1968a). Naturalistas y Viajeros Cientificos que han contribuido al
conocimiento Floristico Fitogeografico del Ecuador. Inst. Ecuat. de Cienc. Nat.
Contribucién 65: 1-138. (History of botanical collecting.)
Acosta-Solis, M. (1968b). Divisiones fitogrdficas y formaciones geobotanicos del
Ecuador. Publ. Cient. de la Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana, Quito.
Gentry, A.H. (1982). Phytogeographic patterns as evidence for a Choco Refuge. In
Prance, G.T. (Ed.) (1982), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 112-136.
Harling, G. (1979). The vegetation types of Ecuador - a brief survey. In Larsen, K.
and Holm-Nielsen, L.B. (Eds), Tropical Botany. Academic Press, London.
Pp. 165-174.
Putney, A.D. (1976). Estrategia prelimina para la conservacion de areas silvestres
sobresalientes del Ecuador. UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. 61 pp.
Svenson, H.K. (1945). Vegetation of the coast of Ecuador and Peru and its relation to
the Galapagos Islands. Am. J. Bot. 33: 394-498.
Egypt
Area 1,000,250 sq. km
Population 45,657,000
Floristics 2085 species (Tackholm, 1974); 1095 species said to occur in the coastal
strip (Boulos, 1975), but probably only 800-900 (M.N. el Hadidi, 1984, pers. comm.); 70
endemics (IUCN figures).
105
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Predominantly Saharan flora, with Mediterranean elements along the north coast (mostly
winter annuals); Irano-Turanian element in the Sinai. The Nile valley has a distinctive
flora with Sudanian elements in the southern part. The Gebel Elba mountain block and the
surrounding land has a Sahelian element, which also reaches south Sinai. Prominent
centres of endemism are the mountains of Sinai, Gebel Elba and Gebel Uweinat, and some
oases in the western desert. Oases often have a Mediterranean weed element.
Vegetation Mostly desert with little or no perennial vegetation except for
scattered desert shrubs; oases consist mostly of the cultivated Date palm Phoenix
dactylifera. Coastal strip of overgrazed and badly degraded land. Also of interest is the
rich aquatic and riverine flora associated with the Nile.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Egypt is included in the computerized Atlas der
Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes (Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980),
Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and is being covered in Med-Checklist, all of which are
cited in Appendix 1.
Tackholm, V. (1974). Students’ Flora of Egypt, 2nd Ed. Cairo Univ., Cairo. 888 pp.
(Keys, diagnoses, distributions, line drawings.)
Tackholm, V. and Boulos, L. (1972). Supplementary notes to Students’ Flora of Egypt,
Second Edition. Publ. Cairo Univ. Herb. 5: 1-135. (16 plates of black and white
photographs.)
Tackholm, V. and Boulos, L. (1977). Additions and corrections to the second edition
of Students’ Flora of Egypt. Publ. Cairo Univ. Herb. 7/8: 211-218.
Tackholm, V. and Drar, M. (1941-69). Flora of Egypt. Incomplete; 4 vols, principally
monocotyledons. Bull. Fac. Sci. Cairo Univ. 17, 28, 30, 36.
A new multipart ‘Flora of Egypt’ is in preparation, under the direction of Professor M.N.
el Hadidi of the Cairo Herbarium. Published so far are Amaranthaceae, by M.N. el
Hadidi and A.M.H. el Hadidy, Globulariaceae, by A.A. Fayed, Santalaceae, by F.M.
Sa’ad, and Vahliaceae, by D.M. Bridson; Plantaginaceae, by S. Snogerup, is in press (due
out late 1984). Published in Taeckholmia Additional Series (1980- ), and expected to take
10-15 years to complete.
Information on Threatened Plants No National Red Data Book published, but
Professor M.N. el Hadidi has drafted one containing 112 species of Egyptian plants. Egypt
is included in the draft list for North Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN
Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Abdallah, M.S. and Sa’ad, F.M. (1980). Proposals for conservation of endangered
species of the flora of Egypt. Notes Agric. Res. Centre Herb. Egypt 5: 1-12. (Lists
54 rare or endemic species.)
Boulos, L. (1985). The arid eastern and south-eastern Mediterranean regions. In
Gomez-Campo, C. (Ed.), Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean Area.
Latest IUCN figures: endemics: Ex:2, E:12, V:6, R:38, 1:6, K:4, nt:2; non-endemics rare
or threatened worldwide - E:2, V:9, R:13, I:2 (world categories).
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Garden, Botany Department, Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria,
Moharram Bey, Alexandria.
El Saff Botanic Garden, El Saff, Upper Egypt.
Orman Botanic Garden, Giza-Orman, Cairo.
106
Egypt
Qubba Botanic Garden, Qubba, Cairo.
Zohria Trial Gardens, Gezira, Cairo.
There is also a botanic garden in Asyit, but address not known.
Useful Addresses
Plant Protection Department, Agriculture College, Asyit.
The Herbarium, Cairo University, Giza.
CITES Authority: The Director, Flora and Phytotaxonomy Researches, Agricultural
Research Centre, P.O. Box: Ministry of Agriculture, Dokki, Cairo.
Additional References
Batanouny, K.H. (1973). Habitat features and vegetation of deserts and semi-deserts in
Egypt. Vegetatio 27(4-6): 181-199. (12 black and white photographs.)
Boulos, L. (1975). The Mediterranean element in the flora of Egypt and Libya. In
CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 119-124.
Hassib, H. (1952). Distribution of plant communities in Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Cairo
Univ. 29: 59-261.
Kassas, M. ef al. (1952-1970). Habitat and plant communities in the Egyptian desert. I.
Introduction. J. Ecol. 40: 342-351 (with 6 black and white photographs); II. The
features of a desert community. Ibid. 41: 248-256; III. The wadi bed ecosystem.
Ibid. 42: 424-441 (with 6 black and white photographs); IV. The gravel desert. Ibid.
47: 289-310 (with 8 black and white photographs); V. The limestone plateau. bid.
52: 107-119 (with 8 black and white photographs); VI. The units of a desert
ecosystem. Ibid. 53: 715-728 (with 8 black and white photographs); VII.
Geographical facies of plant communities. Jbid. 58: 335-350 (with 8 black and white
photographs).
Wickens, G.E. (1977). Some of the phytogeographical problems associated with Egypt.
Publ. Cairo Univ. Herb. 7/8: 223-230.
El Salvador
Area 21,393 sq. km
Population 5,888,000
Floristics An estimated 2500 species of vascular plants (Gentry, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1); 19 endemic taxa (IUCN figures).
Vegetation On the coastal plain and lower southern mountain slopes mostly
savanna and broadleaved forest; in the mountains of the north and south temperate
grassland, remnants of deciduous oak and pine forests; in the upland area around Cerro
Montecristo, on the Guatemalan border (the wettest area), cloud forests, the last
remaining primary forest in the country, now protected, but only 12 sq. km (Daugherty,
1973b). Less than 10% of the country has forest cover and very little wildlands are left.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 40 sq. km/annum out of
1010 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras El Salvador is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana
Project, described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of
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Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Flora Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). Also ‘‘most plants’’ of El Salvador are included in
the completed Flora of Guatemala and related articles in Fieldiana, outlined under
Guatemala. Useful works specifically on El Salvador include:
Calderon, S. and Standley, P.C. (1944). Lista Preliminar de Plantas de El Salvador,
2nd Ed. San Salvador. 450 pp. (Annotated checklist.)
Carlson, M.C. (1948). Additional plants of El Salvador. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 75(3):
272-281.
Guzman, D.J. (1950). Flora Salvadorena. Imprenta Nacional, San Salvador. 691 pp.
Hamer, F. (1974-1981). Las Orquideas de El Salvador, 3 vols. Ministerio de Educacion,
Direccioén de Publicaciones, San Salvador. 1140 pp. (Descriptions, drawings, colour
plates of 362 species; in English, Spanish and German.)
Lotschert, W. (1953). Ferns of the Republic of El Salvador. Ceiba 4(1): 241-250. (List
of 174 species.)
Seiler, R. (1980). Una Guia Taxonémica Para Helechos de El Salvador. Ministerio de
Educacion, San Salvador. 58 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book, but
various lists have been prepared:
Reyna de Aguilar, M.L. (1981). Flora en vias de extincién. Servicio de Parques
Nacional y Vida Silvestre. (Unpublished list of threatened trees, bromeliads, orchids
and of endemic trees in protected areas.)
Witsberger, D. (1980). Tree species of El Salvador and their conservation status.
(Unpublished list of trees of El Salvador with annotations for endemics, species of
low population considered rare, and those in Montecristo National Park.)
IUCN is preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The List of
rare, threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based
upon this work: endemic taxa - V:4, R:6, I:2, K:7; non-endemic taxa rare or threatened
worldwide - E:4, V:7, R:3 (world categories).
10 threatened plants are included in Organizacion de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited
in Appendix 1, and 3 species included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book. Threatened
plants are also mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104) and J.T. Mickel on rare
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328).
Laws Protecting Plants No wildlife legislation, but a draft law is under
consideration (Fuller and Swift, 1984, cited in Appendix 1). The U.S. Government has
determined Abies guatemalensis (El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico) as
‘Threatened’ under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
Voluntary Organizations
Friends of the Earth, Edificio Comercial, 6° Piso, San Salvador.
National Committee for Ecology, Boulevard del Hipodromo 303, San Salvador.
Useful Addresses
Instituto Salvadoreno de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia,
Canton El Matazano, Apdo Postal 2265, Soyapango, San Salvador.
Seccién de Flora, Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, DIGERENARE,
Apdo Postal 2265, San Salvador.
108
El Salvador
Additional References
Blutstein, H.1. et al. (1970). El Salvador: A Country Study. The American University,
Washington, D.C. 260 pp.
Daugherty, H.E. (1973a). The Montecristo Cloud-forest of El Salvador - a chance for
protection. Biol. Conserv. 5(3): 227-230.
Daugherty, H.E. (1973b). Conservacién Ambiental Ecoldgica de El Salvador con
Recomendaciones para un Programa de Accién Nacional. Artes Grafica
Publicitarias, San Salvador. 56 pp.
Holdridge, L.R. (1959). Mapa Ecolégico de El Salvador. Instituto Interamericano de
Ciencias Agricolas de la Organizacién de los Estados Americanos (OEA), San José,
Costa Rica.
Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea comprises mainland Mbini (Rio Muni) and five islands and islets in the
Gulf of Guinea: Bioko (Fernando Po or Macias Nguema Biyogo) is the largest island in the
Gulf, 32 km from Cameroon; Pagalu (Annobon) is the smallest of the offshore islands,
180 km SSW of S. Tomé and 340 km from the nearest mainland (Gabon); Corisco, Elobey
Grande and Elobey Chico are small coastal islets. The other major islands in the Gulf of
Guinea are S40 Tomé and Principe, gq.v.
Area 28,051 sq. km, including Mbini (26,017 sq. km), Bioko (2017 sq. km) and
Pagalu (17 sq. km).
Population 383,000
Floristics
Mbini No figures available, but flora likely to be rich (Brenan, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1). Floristic affinities Guinea-Congolian.
Bioko 1105 species (Exell, 1973a); 49 endemic species (Brenan, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1). (Exell, 1944 gives a figure of 99 endemic species, but this was before the
revision of the Flora of West Tropical Africa.) Floristic affinities with mainiand West
Africa (particularly Mt Cameroun) and the other islands in the Gulf of Guinea.
Pagulu 208 species (Exell, 1973a), with 17 endemic species (out of a total of 115,
Exell, 1944). Floristic affinities with the other islands in the Gulf of Guinea between it and
the mainland. ri
Vegetation
Mbini Lowland rain forest, with small areas of mangrove forest at the coast.
Bioko Original low altitude vegetation: lowland rainforest, but very little left
now, replaced by secondary and cultivation communities to meet the needs of the dense
population. Afromontane communities of montane forest and grassland occur at higher
altitudes.
Pagulu Difficult to assess original vegetation, since so little now remains, but
predominantly lowland and submontane evergreen forest, with mist-forest on the upper
slopes of the peaks. Most low and medium altitude vegetation now destroyed; replaced by
savanna-like cultivated land with scattered bushes. Dry forest and mist forest are still quite
well represented.
109
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 30 (27 in Mbini) sq.
km/annum out of 12,950 (11,800 in Mbini) sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras
Mbini
Guinea Lépez, E. (1946). Ensayo Geobotdanico de la Guinea Continental Espanola.
Direccion de Agricultura de los Territorios Espafioles del Golfo de Guinea, Madrid.
388 pp. (See especially pp. 218-368, where records of plants are given; illustrated
throughout with maps, line drawings, paintings, and black and white photographs.)
Bioko Included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa, cited in Appendix 1.
Benl, G. (1978-1982). The Pteridophyta of Fernando Po. (Contributions to a Flora of
the island.) Acta Botanica Barcinonensia 31: 1-31; 32: 1-34; 33: 1-46.
Escarré, A. (1968-1970). Aportaciones al conocimiento de la flora de Fernando Poo.
Acta Phytotax. Barcinonensia 2 (1968), 15 pp.; 3 (1969), 23 pp.; 5 (1970), 32 pp. (by
A. Escarré and T. Reinares). (Never completed; covers 5 families only.)
Pagulu
Exell, A.W. (1963). Angiosperms of the Cambridge Annobon Island expedition. Bull.
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Bot. 3(3): 93-118.
Pagalu is also included in the following Floras:
Exell, A.W. (1944). Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of S. Tomé (with Principe and
Annobon). British Museum (Natural History), London. 428 pp. (Annotated
checklist; line drawings.)
Exell, A.W. (1956). Supplement to the Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of S. Tomé
(with Principe and Annobon). British Museum (Natural History), London. 58 pp.
Bioko and Pagalu are both included in:
Exell, A.W. (1973a). Angiosperms of the islands of the Gulf of Guinea (Fernando Po,
Principe, S. Tomé and Annobon). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Bot. 4(8): 325-411.
London. (Checklist with distributions.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare and threatened
plants; IUCN has records of three species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic to
Mbini, 58 endemic to Bioko and 17 endemic to Pagalu; no categories assigned.
Additional References
Exell, A.W. (1952/1955). The vegetation of the islands of the gulf of Guinea. Lejeunia
16: 57-66.
Exell, A.W. (1968). Principe, S. Tomé and Annobon. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968),
cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 132-134. (Includes lists of examples of endemic species for
each of the three islands.)
Exell, A.W. (1973b). Relagdes floristicas entre as ilhas do golfo da Guiné e destas com
0 continente africano. Garcia de Orta, Sér. Bot. 1(1-2): 3-10.
Guinea, E. (1968). Fernando Po. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 130-132.
Mildbraed, J. (1922). Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Zweiten Deutschen Zentral-
Afrika-Expedition 1910-1911, 2, Botanik. Klinkhardt and Biermann, Leipzig. 202
pp. (With 90 plates of black and white photographs.)
110
Ethiopia
Area 1,023,050 sq. km
Population 35,420,000
Floristics Cufodontis (1953-1972) includes 6283 species in his Enumeratio, cited
in Appendix 1; also includes Somalia (c. 518 endemic species), but probably of the right
order of magnitude for the flora of Ethiopia if Somalian endemics are excluded and new
species and records included. Endemism fairly high in the mountains and in the sub-desert
Ogaden in south-east Ethiopia; also the forests in the south-west. Brenan (1978, cited in
Appendix 1) gives a value of almost 21% specific endemism from a sample of less than
3000 species; this is almost certainly too high, 10% being probably more accurate.
Large proportion of area in Afromontane region, with small pockets of the Afroalpine
region at the highest altitudes; flora of these regions greatly impoverished, and related to
the highland flora in other parts of Africa. Affinities also with the floras of South Africa,
Europe and the Himalayas. Most of lowland southern Ethiopia belongs to the Somalia-
Masai region with east African affinities, although forests of the south-west have links
with the west African forests. Flora of western Ethiopia is Sudanian.
Vegetation The natural vegetation of the plateaux and highlands above 1800 m is
largely coniferous forest; most has disappeared and is only found in the more inaccessible
regions; there are also expanses of mountain grassland. Zonation in the mountains from
forest through bamboo and heath thicket to tufted grass moorland is similar to that on the
high Kenyan mountains, but less well marked. In the south-west higher rainfall and lower
elevation has produced extensive broadleaved rain forests with a high diversity of species.
In the lowlands, there is a range of dry-zone vegetation, from limited areas of desert
through Acacia-Commiphora bushland to Acacia woodland. Estimated rate of
deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 60 sq. km/annum out of 27,500 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Ethiopia is included in Enumeratio Plantarum Aethiopiae
Spermatophyta (Cufodontis, 1953-1972), and in Adumbratio Florae Aethiopicae, both
cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Breitenbach, F. von (1963). The Indigenous Trees of Ethiopia, 2nd Rev. Ed. (ist Ed.
1960). Ethiopian Forestry Association, Addis Ababa. 306 pp. (Keys to families,
genera; full descriptions; 129 line drawings.)
Burger, W.C. (1967). Families of Flowering Plants in Ethiopia. Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 45, USAID, Oklahoma State Univ. Press, Oklahoma. 236 pp. (Keys to
families; family descriptions; 74 line drawings.)
Fiori, A. (1909-1912). Boschi e Piante Legnose dell’Eritrea. Firenze. 428 pp.
(Illustrated; rather old, but gives records for rare plants.)
Pirotta, R. (1903-1907). Flora della Colonia Eritrea, parts 1-3. Annuario del R. Istituto
Botanico di Roma 8, Rome. 464 pp. (Never completed; final part lost by printers,
according to Frodin.)
There is a new project to write a Flora of Ethiopia headed by Professor Tewolde-Berhan of
the University of Asmara. It is expected to take 15-20 years to complete and will comprise
7 volumes. Volume 3 (including Leguminosae) and substantial parts of volume 2 are in
manuscript.
y) 111
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Field-guides
Edwards, S. (1976). Some Wild Flowering Plants of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Ethiopia, pp. 92-93, by M.G.
Gilbert, contains 29 endemic succulent taxa - E:1, V:4, R:12, 1:12.)
IUCN has records of c. 450 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; only a
few (mostly succulents) known to be rare or threatened.
Two species which occur in Ethiopia are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book
(1978).
Useful Addresses
Flora of Ethiopia project, P.O. Box 3434, Addis Ababa.
Additional References
Beals, E.W. (1968). Ethiopia. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 137-140.
Friis, I. (1983). Phytogeography of the tropical north-east African mountains. In
Killick, D.J.B. (1983), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 525-532.
Friis, I., Rasmussen, F.N. and Vollesen, K. (1982). Studies in the flora and vegetation
of southwest Ethiopia. Opera Botanica 63: 1-70.
Hedberg, I. (in prep.). Proceedings of a symposium on the Ethiopian flora held in
Uppsala in May 1984. To be published in Symb. Bot.
Hedberg, O. (1983). Ethiopian Flora project. In Killick, D.J.B. (1983), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 571-574.
Logan, W.E.M. (1946). An introduction to the forests of central and southern
Ethiopia. Inst. Pap. Imp. For. Inst. 24. 64 pp. (Includes small-scale vegetation
map.)
Pichi-Sermolli, R.E.G. (1957). Una carta geobotanica dell’ Africa orientale (Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Somalia). Webbia 13: 15-132. (Includes map 1:5,000,000.)
Faeroe Islands
Over 20 islands in the north Atlantic between Shetland and Iceland, forming a self-
governing community within the Kingdom of Denmark.
Area 1399 sq. km
Population 42,000
Floristics 262 native vascular species (Hansen, 1972); 1 endemic species. 3
floristic elements: Arctic (c. 25%), sub-Arctic (50%) and Atlantic (c. 25%).
Vegetation Mostly dwarf scrub with bog and grassy heath communities. Above
300 m alpine tundra covers the mountainous North Islands and the north-facing peaks of
the Central Islands group (Warming, 1901-1908).
Checklists and Floras Covered by Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited
in Appendix 1) and:
112
Faeroe Islands
Ostenfeld, C.H. and Grontved, J. (1934). The Flora of Iceland and the Faeroes. Levin
and Munksgaard, Copenhagen. 195 pp.
Rasmiissen, R. (1952). Favoya Flora, 2nd Ed. Jacobsens, Torshavn. 231 pp. (School
and excursion manual with keys; line drawings.)
Field-guides
Bloch, D. (1980). Faraflora. Foroza Frodstaparfelag, Torshavn. 156 pp. (English
edition also available.)
Information on Threatened Plants Only 1 non-endemic species is listed as
threatened on the IUCN list, the orchid Hammarbya paludosa.
Useful Addresses
Museum of Natural History, 3800 Torshavn.
Additional References
Hansen, K. (1964). The botanical investigations of the Faroe Islands 1960-61 and some
contributions to the Flora. Bot. Tidssk. 60(1-2): 99-107.
Hansen, K. (1966). Vascular plants in the Faeroes. Horizontal and vertical distribution.
Dansk Bot. Ark. 24(3): 1-141. (Distribution maps for vascular plants.)
Hansen, K. (1972). Vertical vegetation zones and vertical distribution types in the
Faeroes. Saertryk Bot. Tidssk. 67: 33-63. (Useful ecological description.)
Warming, E. et al. (1901-1908). Botany of the Faeroes based upon Danish
Investigations, 3 parts. Gyldendalske, Kobenhavn. (Part 3 contains a detailed
phytosociological description by C.H. Ostenfeld, pp. 867-1026.)
Falkland Islands (Islas
Malvinas)
The Falkland Islands, an archipelago 520 km east of the straits of Magellan, comprise two
main islands, East Falkland (5000 sq. km) and West Falkland (3500 sq. km), together with
about 230 smaller islands. The highest point is Mt Usborne (705 m) on East Falkland. They
are a Dependent Territory of the U.K.
Area 12,173 sq. km
Population 2000
Floristics 163 native species of flowering plants and pteridophytes, and 93
introduced species; 16 endemic species (Moore, 1968). Phlebolobium (Cruciferae) is an
endemic genus. Floristic affinities with the southern Andes and Patagonia.
Vegetation Maritime tussock grassland, with Poa flabellata, now heavily
overgrazed; Hebe and Chiliotrichum bush in places; dwarf shrub heath, dominated by
Empetrum, on better drained ground; Cortaderia grassland in areas of poorer drainage;
bog communities in very poorly drained areas; ‘feldmark’ formation above 600 m, in
which there are large areas of open ground with cushion-forming vascular plants, mosses
and lichens.
113
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras
Moore, D.M. (1968). The Vascular Flora of the Falkland Islands. British Antarctic
Survey Scientific Report no. 60. NERC, London. 202 pp. (Includes description of
vegetation.)
Moore, D.M. (1973). Additions and amendments to the vascular flora of the Falkland
Islands. Brit. Antarctic Survey Bull. 32: 85-88.
Vallentin, E.F. and Cotton, E.M. (1921). I/lustrations of the Flowering Plants and
Ferns of the Falkland Islands. Reeve, London. (64 colour plates, with text.)
Information on Threatened Plants Calandrinia feltonii is included in The IUCN
Plant Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:1, R:3, nt:8.
Voluntary Organizations
Falkland Islands Foundation, Hon. Secretary, c/o WWF-United Kingdom, Panda
House, 11-13 Ockford Road, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1QU, U.K.
Additional References
Correa Luna, H. ef al. (1975). Campaijia cientifica en las Islas Malvinas, 1974
(Noviembre 17 a Diciembre 2). Anal. Soc. Cientif. Argentina 199: 51-180. (Articles
on conservation, agronomy, physiognomy and fauna by visiting Argentine
scientists.)
Erskine, P.J. (1985). Flowers of the Falklands. Alpine Garden Society Bulletin 53(1):
69-87. (Notes on vegetation and 19 flowering plant species.)
Skottsberg, C. (1913). A botanical survey of the Falkland Islands. K. Svenska Vetensk
Akad. Hanadl. 50(3): 1-129.
Falkland Islands: South
Georgia
South Georgia, a dependency of the Falkland Islands, is situated at latitude 54°S and
longitude 36-38°W, 1287 km east of the Falkland Islands and 2000 km east of Tierra del
Fuego. Area 3757 sq. km; the population comprises the staff of the British Antarctic
Survey Station. Much of the land is permanently covered by ice.
There are 24 native vascular species (Smith and Walton, 1975). The vegetation consists of
coastal tussock grassland (mainly of Poa flabellata); dry meadows of Festuca contracta;
dwarf shrub (Acacia magellanica) and mire communities on higher ground, and sparsely
vegetated fell-fields in the more exposed high areas.
References
Greene, S.W. (1964). The Vascular Flora of South Georgia. British Antarctic Survey
Scientific Report no. 45. London. 58 pp. (Includes distribution maps.)
Greene, S.W. (1969). New records for South Georgian vascular plants. Brit. Antarctic
Survey Bull. 22: 49-59.
Greene, S.W. and Walton, D.W.H. (1975). An annotated checklist of the sub-antarctic
and antarctic vascular flora. Polar Record 17(110): 473-484.
Smith, R.I.L. and Walton, D.W.H. (1975). South Georgia, Subantarctic. Ecol. Bull.
(Stockolm) 20: 399-423.
114
Falkland Islands: South Georgia
Walton, D.W.H. (1975). Nomenclatural notes on South Georgian vascular plants. Brit.
Antarctic Survey Bull. 40: 77-79.
Falkland Islands: South
Sandwich Islands
The South Sandwich Islands, dependencies of the Falkland Islands, are a chain of
uninhabited islands, of area 310 sq. km, situated 756 km south-east of South Georgia.
They have active volcanoes and support very scattered communities of crustaceous lichens,
algae and mosses. 58 plant species recorded, but only one species of higher plant
(Deschampsia antarctica).
References
Longton, R.E. and Holdgate, M.W. (1979). The South Sandwich Islands: 4. Botany.
British Antarctic Survey Scientific Report no. 94. NERC, Cambridge. 53 pp.
(Includes checklist and description of plant communities.)
Fiji
The Fiji group includes some 332 islands in the south-west Pacific Ocean, between
latitudes 10° and 25°S, and longitudes 176°E and 173°W, about 2000 km north north-west
of New Zealand. 3 types of islands: high volcanic islands, reaching 1323 m on Viti Levu;
limestone islands; and low coral islands and atolls. About 97 islands permanently
inhabited; most of the population live on the coast and along river valleys on Viti Levu and
Vanua Levu.
Area 18,235 sq. km
Population 674,000
Floristics c. 1500 native vascular plant species, including 310 pteridophytes; in
addition there are c. 1000 introduced flowering plant species (A.C. Smith, 1984, in Jitt.).
About 40-50% of native species are endemic, including all 26 palm species (Smith, in Jitt.).
One family and 11 genera endemic (van Balgooy, 1971, cited in Appendix 1). Floristic
affinities with Malesia, New Hebrides, Samoa and Tonga.
Vegetation Rain forest (veikauloa) in south and east of larger islands and most
parts of small volcanic islands, where not disturbed (Smith, 1951); montane rain forest up
to 1735 m (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Dry zone (talasinga) vegetation, including
dry forests, savanna woodlands and grasslands on north and west slopes of large islands
and inland to 450 m; dry forest mostly replaced by sugar cane plantations. Intermediate
zone vegetation immediately leeward of wet forests. Mangrove forest still extensive along
larger rivers and muddy coasts. Natural forest cover is estimated at 8650 sq. km (S.
Siwatibau, 1984, in /itt.). For an account of the vegetation see Schmid (1978).
115
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras The Flora is:
Smith, A.C. (1979- ). Flora Vitiensis Nova: A New Flora of Fiji. Pacific Tropical
Botanic Garden, Hawaii. (2 vols so far. 1 - Gymnosperms and monocotyledons
except orchids, 495 pp.; 2 - dicotyledons, 810 pp.; 3,4 - dicotyledons and orchids,
in prep.)
Also relevant:
Brownlie, C. (1977). The Pteridophyte Flora of Fiji. Cramer, FL-9490, Vaduz,
Liechtenstein. 397 pp.
Parham, J.W. (1972). Plants of the Fiji Islands, 2nd Ed. Govt Printer, Suva. 462 pp.
(Checklist with short descriptions and line drawings.)
Seemann, B. (1865-1873). Flora Vitiensis: A Description of the Plants of the Viti or Fiji
Islands, with an Account of their History, Uses and Properties. London. 453 pp.
(Reprinted 1977 by Cramer, FL-9490, Vaduz, Liechtenstein; many colour plates.)
Information on Threatened Plants No comprehensive list of threatened plants.
An IUCN manuscript list of Fijian palms includes E:1, V:2, R:14, I:5. Neoveitchia storckii
is included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Voluntary Organizations
The National Trust of Fiji, P.O. Box 2089, Government Buildings, Suva. (Government
statutory body with a voluntary membership.)
Botanic Gardens
Suva Botanical Gardens, Box 176, Suva, Fiji.
Additional References
Berry, M.J. and Howard, W.J. (1973). Fiji Forest Inventory, 3 vols. Land Resources
Study no. 12. Overseas Development Administration, Tolworth, U.K.
Derrick, R.A. (1965). The Fiji Islands: A Geographical Handbook, 2nd Ed.
Government Press, Suva. 336 pp.
Schmid, M. (1978) The Melanesian forest ecosystems (New Caledonia, New Hebrides,
Fiji Islands and Solomon Islands). In Unesco/UNEP/FAO (1978), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 654-683.
Smith, A.C. (1951). The vegetation and flora of Fiji. Scientific Monthly 73: 3-15.
Finland
Area 337,032 sq. km
Population 4,859,000
Floristics About 1100 native vascular species (Hamet-Ahti ef al., 1984);
1250-1450 species estimated by D.A. Webb (cited in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; no
endemics. Entire country was glaciated so flora still young. Elements: mostly Boreal, with
some Arctic/alpine influence in the mountains of the north.
Vegetation Extensive tracts of natural, coniferous forests cover about 70% of
land surface, open mires about 10%, and treeless alpine areas 5%. In the north, a narrow
lichen-tundra belt; in central northern Finland, extensive areas of peat bogs bordered by
pine and spruce (Finland, Sweden and Norway contain 80% of Europe’s peatlands); south
116
Finland
of the Arctic Circle, pine is more widespread with heathlands; in the south, herb-rich
meadows, once abundant, now disappearing, due to decline of traditional agriculture.
c. 60,000 lakes throughout the country support extensive shore-line vegetation.
Checklists and Floras Covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1) and the below:
Hiitonen, I. (1933). Suomen Kasvio (Flora of Finland). Kustannusosakeyhtié Otava,
Helsinki. 771 pp. (In Finnish; illus.)
Hjelt, H. (1888-1926). Conspectus florae Fennicae, 7 vols. Acta Soc. Fauna Flora
Fennica 5: 1-562; 21: 1-261; 30: 1-140; 35: 1-411; 41: 1-502; 51: 1-450; 54: 1-397. (In
Latin and Swedish.)
A regional plant atlas is Hultén (1971), cited in Appendix 1. For a bibliography of recent
floristic work see:
Collander, R., Erkamo, V. and Lehtonen, P. (1973). Bibliographica Botanica Fenniae
1901-1950. Acta Soc. Fauna Flora Fennica. 646 pp.
Jalas, J. (1975). Progress in the study of vascular plants in Finland 1962-1971. Mem.
Soc. Brot. 24(2): 395-462.
National botanical journals: Annales Bot. Fennici, Helsinki; Memoranda Soc. Fauna
Flora Fennica, Helsinki; Acta Bot. Fennica, Helsinki.
The Botanical Museum of the University of Helsinki operates a computerized ‘Flora
Register’ containing information about vascular plant species gathered from literature,
herbarium specimens and other unpublished sources. At present it contains over | million
records, including information on threatened plants.
Field-guides
Hamet-Ahti, L., Suominen, J., Ulvinen, T., Uotila, P. and Vuokko, S. (Eds), (1984).
Retkeilykasvio (Field Flora of Finland). Helsinki. 544 pp. (Keys; distribution maps
at Province level; line drawings; in Finnish.)
Hiitonen, I. and Poijarvi, A. (1958). Koulu-ja retkeilykasvio (School and excursion
Flora), 9th Ed. Helsinki. 472 pp. (In Finnish.)
Information on Threatened Plants A national threatened plant programme is
being undertaken by the Committee for the Protection of Threatened Animals and Plants,
in the Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation Division, Helsinki (address
below). This programme includes the production of a national Red Data Book, for
publication in 1985, and the development of a national protection and monitoring scheme.
Preliminary lists of threatened plants have been compiled for both vascular and lower
plants. For vascular plants both national and regional lists will be produced. They are
presently available in the following reference book:
Vuokko, S. (1983). Uhatut kasvimme (Our threatened plants). Suomen
Luonnonsuojelun Tuki Oy, Helsinki. 96 pp. (Popular book including lists of
protected plants in Finland, Aland and the rest of Scandinavia; illus.)
The lists update the earlier national threatened plant list, which was produced in
collaboration with WWF-Finland:
Borg, P. and Malmstrém, K. (1975). Suomen uhanalaiset eldin-ja kasvilajit (Threatened
animals and plants in Finland). Luonnon Tutkija 79: 33-43. (Lists 62 vascular plant
species threatened throughout the country.)
Also relevant:
~
117
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Haeggstrém, C.-A., Haeggstrom, E. and Lindgren, L. (1982). Rapport om fridlysta
och sdllsynta vaéxter pa Aland (Report on the protected and rare plants on the Aland
Islands). Naté biologiska station. 137 pp.
Kaakinen, E., Salminen, P. and Ulvinen, T. (1979). Lapin kolmion lettojen tuho
(Fenland loss in the Lapland Triangle). Suomen Luonto 38: 130-131. (Describes
plant species on the decline.)
Murto, R. (1982). Tutkimuksia Uudenmaan Ldédnin Uhanalaisista Kasveista. 1.
Tammisaaren ja Inkoon saaristo. (Studies on the threatened plants in the Province
of Uusimaa. 1. Archipelago of Tammisaari and Inkoo.) Helsingin yliopiston
kasvimuseo. 62 pp. (To be continued.)
Suominen, J. (1974). Tuloksia uhanalaisten kasvien tiedustelusta (Results from an
enquiry about endangered plants in Finland). Suomen Luonto 33: 24, 29.
Tampereen seutukaavaliitto. (1982). Pirkanmaan uhanalaiset kasvit ja niiden
esiintymisalueet (Threatened plants and their localities in the Province of Tampere).
Tampereen seutukaavaliiton julkaisu, Ser. B, 116: 1-22.
Uotila, P. (1983). Project hotade vaxter i Nylands lan (Projects about threatened plants
in the Province of Uusimaa, S. Finland). Memoranda Soc. Fauna Flora Fennica 59:
106-112. (Maps.)
Finland is included in the Nordic Council of Ministers’ threatened plant list and
supplements (Ovesen ef. a/, 1978 and 1982) and in the European list (Threatened Plants
Unit, 1983), all cited in Appendix 1; latest IUCN statistics, based upon the latter: non-
endemics rare or threatened worldwide - V:7, R:6, I:1 (world categories).
In May 1984, WWF-Finland launched a national Plants Campaign in the Botanical
Garden and Department of Botany in the University of Helsinki, as part of their
contribution to the IUCN/WWFEF Plants Programme 1984-85. Further details available
from WWF-Finland and the Garden (addresses below).
Laws Protecting Plants The recent 1983 law (Laki luonnonsuojelulain
muuttamisesta) strengthens the earlier Nature Conservation Act of 1952. Under the new
law, in the Statute on the Protection of Wild Plants, 94 vascular plant species receive
complete protection, an additional 9 species receive complete protection in southern
Finland only and 8 species in northern Finland only. It is prohibited to pick, damage or
transport any of the species listed. It is also forbidden to use for trade purposes a further 7
species, listed in paragraph 4 of the Statute. Breaking the branches of Hippophae
rhamnoides is also prohibited.
In the autonomous islands of Aland, the recent 1984 Statute (above), provides complete
protection (stricter than that for the mainland species) for 52 vascular plant species. It is
also forbidden to uproot Dactylorhiza sambucina and to cut down wild Quercus robur or
Juniperus communis of a size specified in the Statute. For the list of protected species see
Vuokko (1983).
Voluntary Organizations
Suomen Luonnonsuojeluliitto (Finnish Association for Nature Protection), P.O. Box
169, 00151 Helsinki.
WWFE-Finland (Maailman Luonnon Saati6n Suomen Rahasto), Uudenmaankatu 40,
00120 Helsinki.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Garden, University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 44, 00170 Helsinki.
Botanic Garden, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu 10.
Botanic Garden, University of Jyvaskyla, Yliopistonkatu 9, 40100 Jyvaskyla.
118
Finland
Botanic Garden, University of Kuopio, P.O. Box 138, 70101 Kuopio.
Botanic Garden, University of Oulu, Box 191, 90101 Oulu 10.
Botanic Garden, University of Turku, 20500 Turku 50.
Useful Addresses
Maa-ja Metsalousministeri6, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Bureau of Natural
Resources, Vuorikatu 16, Helsinki 10.
Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation Division, P.O. Box 306, 00531
Helsinki.
National Board of Forestry, P.O. Box 233, 00120 Helsinki. (11 provincial offices and
several local offices.)
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: Committee for the Protection of
threatened animals and plants, Ministry of the Environment, address above.
Additional References
Kalliola, R. (1970). Some features of nature and conservation in Finland. Biol.
Conserv. 2(2): 120-124.
Kalliola, R. (1973). Suomen kasvimaantiede. Porvoo. 308 pp. (The plant geography of
Finland, with good bibliography.)
Jalas, J. (1958, 1965, 1980). Suuri Kasvikirja (The Great Plant Book), 3 vols. Otava,
Keuruu-Helsinki. (A national account of floristics.)
France
Area 549,619 sq. km
Population 54,449,000
Floristics 4300-4450 native vascular species estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 73 endemic taxa (IUCN figures). Diversity greatest
in montane areas: Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps and Jura. Elements: Mediterranean,
Central European, Atlantic, Boreal and alpine.
Vegetation Largely an agricultural landscape, especially in north and west-central
regions. About 1/4 of total land area (c. 140,000 sq. km) under forest, comprising 2/3
deciduous broadleaved (2/3 of which is coppice) and 1/3 evergreen. The 4 main montane
areas (listed above) support a notable alpine flora. Dry grassland is still extensive, but is
shrinking fast due to agricultural change; valuable areas remain in the Jura, pre-Alps,
Quercy and the Causses (Wolkinger and Plank, 1981, cited in Appendix 1). On south
coast, Mediterranean influence present (Quercus ilex, Q. pubescens, Q. mas) with garigue
and diminishing areas of maquis. For a vegetation map see Rey and Dupias (1969).
Checklists and Floras France is covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin
et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). France will also be covered under the Med-
Checklist (cited in Appendix 1). For national Floras see:
Bonnier, G. and Douin, R. (1911-1935). Flore Complete Illustrée en Couleurs de
France, Suisse et Belgique, 13 vols. Neuchatel. (Colour plates.)
Coste, H. (1901-1906). Flore de la France, 3 vols. Klincksieck, Paris. 5 supplements by
P. Jovet and R. de Vilmorin. Blanchard, Paris. (Reprinted 1937, 1950.)
119
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Fournier, P. (1977). Les Quatre Flores de la France, 2nd Ed. 2 vols. Lechevalier, Paris.
(1 - descriptions, 2 - line drawings.)
Guinochet, M. and Vilmorin, R. de (1973-1982). Flore de France, 4 vols. Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. (Includes Corsica; line drawings;
habitat and ecological details.)
Regional Floras:
Abbayes, H. des, Claustres, G., Corillion, R. and Dupont, P. (Eds) (1971). Flore et
Végétation du Massif Armoricain 1: Flore Vasculaire. Presses Universitaires de
Bretagne, Saint-Brieuc. 1226 pp. (Covers the Départements of Morbihan, Loire-
Atlantique, Finistére, C6tes-du-Nord, Ille-et-Vilaine, most of Mayenne; line
drawings.)
De Langhe, J.-E. et al. (1978). Nouvelle Flore de la Belgique, du Grand-Duché de
Luxembourg, du Nord de la France et des Régions Voisines. Jardin Botanique
National de Belgique, Meise. 899 pp.
Field-guides
Bournerias, M. (1979). Guide des Groupements Végétaux de la Région Parisienne,
2nd Ed. 510 pp.
Claustres, G. and Lemoine, C. (1980). Connaitre et Reconnaitre la Flore et la
Végétation des Cétes Manche-Atlantique. Rennes. 331 pp. (Ecological information;
illus.)
Guittonneau, A. and Huon, A. (1983). Connaitre et Reconnaitre la Flore et la
Végétation Mediterranénnes. Rennes. 334 pp.
Jeanjean, A.F. (1961). Catalogue des Plantes Vasculaires de la Gironde. Bordeaux.
362 pp.
Rol, R. (1962-1965). Flore des Arbres, Arbustes et Arbrisseaux, 4 vols. La Maison
Rustique, Paris. (1 - plaines et collines; 2 - montagnes, by R. Rol and
P. Toulgouat; 3 - région mediterranéenne, by R. Rol and M. Jacamon; 4 - essences
introduites, by R. Rol and P. Toulgouat; colour photographs.)
Romagnesi, H. and Weill, J. (1977). Fleurs Sauvages de France et des Régions
Limitrophes, 2 vols. 288 pp.
Stefenelli, S. (1979). Guide des Fleurs de Montagne: Pyrenees - Massif-Central - Alpes
— Apennins (French adaptation). Duculot, Paris-Gembloux. 160 pp. (Colour
photographs and ecological data for each species.)
See also Grey-Wilson (1979) and Polunin and Smythies (1973), both cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants No national Red Data Book but a series of 3
unpublished papers compiled under the direction of the Ministére de la Qualité de la Vie:
Aymonin, G.G. (1974-1977). Etudes sur les régressions d’espéces végétales en France.
Rapport No.1 - Espéces végétales considérées comme actuellement disparues du
territoire; Rapport No.2 - Listes préliminaires des espéces endémiques et des espéces
menacées en France; Rapport No.3 - Liste générale des espéces justifiant des
mesures de protection. Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. (Unpublished;
reports 1 and 2 list over 1000 taxa; report 3 analyses the data in 1 and 2 and
recommends levels of protection.)
See also:
Aymonin, G.G. (1973). Quelques raréfactions et disparitions d’espéces végétales en
France. Causes possibles et consequences chorologiques. C.R. Soc. Biogéogr. 430:
49-64.
120
France
Aymonin, G.G. (1980a). Stratégies de sauvegarde pour les espéces végétales. Quelques
aspects recents. Bull. Soc. Et. Sc. Beziers, n.s. 8(48): 24-37.
Aymonin, G.G. (1980b). Une estimation du degré de modification des milieux naturels:
l’analyse des régressions dans la flore. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 127(2): 187-195.
Aymonin, G.G. (1981). Sur quelques espéces remarquables des complexes boisés de
Bourgogne et leur situation de régression en Europe. Bull. Soc. Bot. France
128(3/4): 95-100.
Aymonin, G.G. (1982). Phénoménes de déséquilibres et appauvrissements floristiques
dans les végétations hygrophiles en France. In Symoens, J.J., Hooper, S.S. and
Compére, P. (Eds), Studies on Aquatic Vascular Plants, Proceedings of the
International Colloquium on Aquatic Vascular Plants, 23-25 January 1981, Brussels.
Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels. Pp. 377-389.
Binet, P. and Provost, M. (1971). Les plantes rares en Normandie. Sci. Nat. 103: 2-6.
Bournerias, M. (1983). Espéces végétales protégées, espéces et biotopes a protéger dans
le bassin de la Seine et le Nord de la France. Nat. Par. 39: 19-36.
Daunas, R. (1977). La protection des espéces végétales en France: plantes rares ou en
voie de disparition en Poitou-Charentes et Régions limitrophes. Bull. Soc. Bot.
Centre-Ouest, n.s. 8: 133-138. (Includes a list of plants in need of national
protection.)
Deschatres, R. (1982). Plantes rares, plantes menacées, plantes protegées. Rev. Scient.
Bourb. 3-24. (Not seen.)
Jovet, P. and Aymonin, G.G. (1980). Phénoménes d’appauvrissement dans une flore
locale et leur signification générale: L’exemple du Pays Basque occidental francais.
C.R. Soc. Biogéogr. 489: 31-40.
Le Brun, P. (1959). Plantes rares et menacées de la France mediterranéene. In Animaux
et Végétaux de la Région Mediterranéene, Proceedings of the IUCN 7th Technical
Meeting, vol. 5. IUCN, Brussels. Pp. 103-111.
Mériaux, J.-L. (1982). Espéces rares ou menacées des biotopes lacustres et fluviatiles du
nord de la France. In Symoens, J.J., Hooper, S.S. and Compére, P. (Eds), Studies
on Aquatic Vascular Plants, Proceedings of the International Colloquium on
Aquatic Vascular Plants, 23-25 January 1981, Brussels. Société Royale de Botanique
de Belgique, Brussels. Pp. 398-402.
Royer, J.-M. (1971). Repartition et écologie de quelques plantes rares de la céte
calcaire de Sa6ne-et-Loire. Bull. Mens. Soc. Linn. Lyon 40(8): 243-249. (Maps.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - Ex:4, E:7, V:10,
R:24, 1:2, K:15, nt:11; doubtfully endemic taxa - V:1, R:1, K:1; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - E:3, V:39, R:22, I:8 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which includes data sheets on 16 French Endangered plant species. The IUCN Plant Red
Data Book (1978) includes 4 species for France.
Laws Protecting Plants Under the ‘‘Protection de la nature’? Law, No. 76-629 of
1976, general protection is given to wild plants ‘‘where their conservation is considered
justified’’. More recently (13 May 1982) a list of protected plant species was published '
(Anon, 1982 and 1983) granting 2 levels of protection under this law to c. 400 species of
pteridophytes and angiosperms. Over 300 of these species receive complete protection
throughout the country from picking, collection, uprooting and sale. For the remaining
ae 121
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
species, it is forbidden to destroy all or part of them; their collecting, harvesting or
transport may be authorized by the Ministére de L’Environnement et du Cadre de Vie.
Anon (1982). Listes des espéces végétales protégées sur l’ensemble du territoire
national. J. Off. Rép. Francaise, 13 May, 1982. Pp. 4559-4562.
Anon (1983). Listes départementales des espéces végétales protégées sur l’ensemble du
territoire national. Bull. Soc. Bot. Centre-Ouest. n.s. 14: 13-16.
Voluntary Organizations
Fédération Francaise des Sociétés de Protection de la Nature (FFSPN), 57 rue Cuvier,
75005 Paris.
Société Botanique de France, rue J.-B. Clément, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, C.C.P.
Paris 1528.
Société Nationale de Protection de la Nature et d’Acclimation de France (SNPN).
(Address as for the FFSPN.)
WWF-France (Association Francaise du World Wildlife Fund), 14 rue de la Cure,
75016 Paris.
Some members of FFSPN:
Fédération Rhone-Alpes pour la Protection de la Nature (FRAPNA), Univ. Claude
Bernard, 43 bd, 69622 Villeurbane Cedex.
Société pour |’Etude et la Protection de la Nature en Bretagne (SEPNB), BP 32, 29276
Brest Cedex.
Botanic Gardens Many, as listed in Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1; only
subscribers to the Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body are given below:
Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles, Parque National de Port-Cros, 50 Avenue
Gambetta, 83400 Hyéres. (Conservation activities described in Threatened Plants
Committee - Newsletter No. 8: 11, 1981.)
Conservatoire Botanique du Stangelarc’h, 29200 Brest.
Jardins Botaniques de la Ville de Nice, 20 Traverse des Arboras, 06200 Nice.
Jardins Botaniques de Nancy, 100 rue du Jardin Botanique, 54600 Villers-Les-Nancy.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Direction de la Protection de la Nature, Convention de
Washington, Secretariat d’Etat auprés du Premier Ministre, charge de
l’Environnement et de la Qualité de la Vie, 14 bd du General-Leclerc, 92524 Neuilly-
sur-Seine.
CITES Scientific Authority: Secretariat Faune Flore, Museum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, 57 rue Cuvier, 75231 Paris Cedex 05.
Additional References
Bordas (Ed.) (1979). Guide de la Nature en France. Paris. 504 pp. (Includes description
of flora and vegetation.)
Olivier, L. (1979). Multiplication and re-introduction of threatened species of the
littoral dunes in Mediterranean France. In Synge, H. and Townsend, H. (Eds),
Survival or Extinction. Proceedings of a Conference 11-17 September 1978, Kew.
Bentham-Moxon Trust, Kew. Pp. 91-93.
Rey, P. and Dupias, G. (Eds) (1969). Carte de la Végétation de la France, 1:200,000.
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Toulouse, Paris.
122
France: Corsica
(A département of France)
Area 8723 sq. km
Population 230,100 (1981 estimate, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics 2159-2250 native vascular species estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 2500 species according to Gamisans (1982). 31
endemic taxa (IUCN figures); 170 according to Contandriopoulos (1964); as many as 250
estimated by M. Conrad (1984, in litt.), but this includes varieties, not normally included
by IUCN (and Flora Europaea) for Europe, and transfrontier endemics. Mediterranean
element dominant.
Vegetation Coastal and lowland vegetation much modified by agriculture and
tourism but maquis still widespread up to 800 m, especially on siliceous soils, with
scattered oaks (Quercus ilex, Q. suber) and pine (Pinus halepensis). In the supra-
mediterranean zone (800-1000 m), mixed deciduous and evergreen woodland (Q.
pubescens, Pinus nigra ssp. laricio, Castanea sativa); in the mountain zone (1000-1700 m),
mainly forest of beech and pine (P. nigra ssp. Jaricio); in the north a subalpine zone
(1600-2100 m) with white fir (Abies alba) or bushland with alder; in the south, between
1800-2200 m, shrub belt with juniper; alpine belt (above 2100 m) of species-rich grassland.
For a vegetation map see Dupias et al. (1965).
Checklists and Floras See under France and:
Bouchard, J. (1977). Flore pratique de la Corse, 3rd Ed. Numéro spécial du Bull. Soc.
Sci. Hist. Nat. Corse, No. 7. Société des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de la
Corse, Bastia. 407 pp. (Lists endemic taxa; phytogeography; maps; line drawings.)
Conrad, M. (1974- ). Flora Corsicana Iconographia: Flore de la Corse: Iconographie
des Espéces et Variétés Endémiques Corses, Cyrno-sardes et Tyrrhéniennes.
L’ Association pour |’Etude Ecologique du Maquis (APEEM), Laboratoire
d’Ecologie de Pirio, Manso, Corse. 5 fascicles published, 2 in press. (Colour plates.)
Gamisans, J. (1982). Catalogue abrégé de la Flore de la Corse. Trav. Sci. Parc Nation.
8: 25-671.
Litardiére, R. de and Briquet, J. (1936-1955). Prodrome de la Flore Corse, 3 vols.
Field-guides
Conrad, M. (1973). Promenades en Corse parmi ses Fleurs et ses Foréts. Archives
départementales, Ajaccio.
Information on Threatened Plants See under France and:
Conrad, M. and Gamisans, J. (Eds) (n.d.). Les espéces végétales les plus menacées en
Corse. Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles. (Unpublished.)
Gamisans, J., Conrad, M. and Olivier, L. (1981). Inventaire des espéces rares ou
menacées de la Corse; la situation des espéces menacées de la Corse. Conservatoire
Botanique de Porquerolles, Hyéres. (2 unpublished reports; describe conservation
status and habitats of over 300 rare or threatened taxa.)
A programme to monitor the status of rare and threatened plants in Corsica is being
undertaken at the Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles, Hyéres, in association with
the Parc Naturel Régional de la Corse. This includes maintaining a list of rare and
123
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
threatened taxa, protecting their localities in the wild, developing a seed bank and
maintaining stocks in cultivation.
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:2, V:2,
R:11, nt:15; doubtfully endemic taxa - E:1; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide -
E:2, V:5, R:4 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants See under France. A separate ordinance has recently been
proposed for species threatened in Corsica only.
Voluntary Organizations
Association des Amis du Parc Naturel Régional de la Corse, Palais Lantivy, avenue du
Général Fiorella, 20,000 Ajaccio.
Société des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de la Corse, 36 rue César Campinchi,
20200 Bastia.
Botanic Gardens See under France. The following botanic gardens actively
participate in the conservation of the Corsican flora:
Conservatoire Botanique de Porquerolles, 50 Avenue Gambetta, 83400 Hyéres, France.
Conservatoire Botanique du Stangalarc’h, 29200 Brest, France.
Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques, Case postale 21, 1211 Geneve 21, Switzerland.
Jardin Botanique de |’Université Liége, Sart Tilman, 4000 Liége, Belgium.
Useful Addresses
Association pour |’Etude Ecologique de Maquis (APEEM), Lycée Giocante de
Casabianca, 20200 Bastia.
Comité pour l’inventaire des zones naturelles d’intérét écologique, faunistique et
floristique, Credec, 1 Avenue du Colonel Feracci, 20250 Corte.
Additional References
Aymonin, G.G. (1975). La nature Corse: menaces et espoirs (propos préliminaire).
Bull. Soc. Bot. France 121: 5-8.
Brun, B., Conrad, M. and Gamisans, J. (1975). La Nature en France: Corse. Horizons
de France, Paris.
Contandriopoulos, J. (1964). Recherches sur la flore endémique de la Corse et sur ses
origines II. Rev. Gén. Bot. 71(845): 361-384.
Delvosalle, L. (1953). Aspects végétaux de la Corse. Naturalistes Belges 34(12):
234-248.
Dupias, J. (1976, 1978). La végétation des montagnes Corses. Phytocoenologie 3: 4;
4:1-4.
Dupias, G., Gaussen, H., Izard, M. and Rey, P. (1965). Carte de la Végétation de la
France. No. 80-81 Corse. CNRS, Paris. (Text and map, 1:200,000.)
Gamisans, J. (1970-1983). Contribution a l’étude de la flore Corse. Candollea 25(1):
105-141 (1970); 26(2): 309-358 (1971); 27(1): 47-63 (1972); 27(2): 189-209 (1972);
28(1): 39-82 (1973); 29(1): 39-55 (1974); 32(1): 51-72 (1977); 36(1):1-17 (1981); 38(1):
217-235 (1983).
Gamisans, J. (1977). La végétation des montagnes Corses. Phytocoenologie 4(1):
35-131; 4(2): 133-179; 4(3): 317-376. (Several papers, giving detailed
phytosociological accounts.)
Gamisans, J. (1980). Bibliographie Botanique Corse, 1955-1979. Candollea 35(1):
211-221.
124
France: Corsica
Litardiére, R. de (1928-1955). Nouvelles contributions a l’étude de la flore de la Corse.
9 fascicles. Arch. Bot. (1928-1930) and Candollea (1931-1955).
French Guiana
French Guiana is an overseas département of France on the Atlantic north-east coast of
South America.
Area 91,000 sq. km
Population 72,000
Floristics de Granville (1982) estimates 6000-8000 species of vascular plants; J.C.
Lindeman (1984, pers. comm.), however, estimates 8000 species of vascular plants for all 3
Guianas, implying the total for French Guiana is rather lower. Cremers (1984) estimates
about 5000 plant species. Affinities with Amazonian forest flora; still imperfectly known.
Vegetation Over 90% of the country, undisturbed equatorial rain forest of
Amazon type; above 500 m small areas of cloud forest, rich in endemics; along the coast a
thin strip of mangrove; covering less than 1.7% of the land are coastal swamps and wet
and dry savannas and rock savannas on granite outcrops (de Granville, 1982). Estimated
rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 10 sq. km/annum out of 89,000 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica, described in Appendix 1. The country Floras are:
Béna, P. (1966). Essences forestiéres de Guyane. Bureau Agricole et Forestier
Guyanais, Imprimerie National, Paris. 488 pp. (Trees, illus.)
Benoist, R. (1933). Les Bois de la Guyane Francaise. Ed. des Archives de Botanique,
Caen, France.
Granville, J.-J. de (1978). Recherches Sur la Flore et La Vegetation Guyanaises.
Université des Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, Montpellier. Thesis. 272 pp.
Lemée, A. (1952-56). Flore de la Guyane Francaise, 4 vols. Librairie Lechevalier, Paris.
(Descriptions; keys only to genera, in selected families.)
A 30-year project to prepare the Flora of the Guianas is being coordinated by the Institute
of Systematic Botany, University of the Utrecht, The Netherlands, and the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., in collaboration with Office de la Recherche Scientifique
et Technique Outre-Mer, Cayenne, French Guiana, and other leading botanical
institutions. Part 1 (Cannaceae, Musaceae and Zingiberaceae by P.J.M. Maas) is in press.
Field-guides
Cremers, G. (1982). Végétation et Flore illustrée des savanes: l’example de la Savane
Bordelaise. Collection ‘‘La Nature de l’Homme en Guyane’’, ORSTOM, Cayenne.
Detienne, P., Jacquet, P. and Mariaux, A. (1982). Manuel d’identification des Bois
Tropicaux. Tome 3: Guyane francaise. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical. Nogent
sur Marne, France.
Granville, J.-J. de (1981). Flore et Végétation. Office Départemental du Tourisme de la
Guyane. Cayenne.
125
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Information on Threatened Plants J.-J. de Granville and G. Cremers have
prepared a list of 90 very rare species endemic to French Guiana, 35 of them not yet
described, and of 172 non-endemic species very rare in French Guiana. According to de
Granville (1984, pers. comm.), the endemic list ‘‘will certainly increase in the future’’.
These lists form the basis for a list of 14 botanical reserves proposed by de Granville
(1975).
Voluntary Organizations
IBIS, Mouvement pour le Respect et la Conservation du Patrimoine Naturel Guyanais,
99 rue du Lieutenant Becker, 97300 Cayenne.
Société pour l’Etude, la Protection et l’Aménagement de la Nature en Guyane
(SEPANGUY), c/o Services Vétérinaires, Avenue Pasteur, B.P. 411, 97300
Cayenne, and B.P. 120, 97310 Kourou.
Botanic Gardens
Institut de Botanique, ORSTOM, Ronte de Montabo, B.P. 165, 97301 Cayenne Cedex.
(Very small.)
Jardin Botanique Municipal, 97300 Cayenne. (No plants from French Guiana.)
Useful Addresses
Délégation Régionale a |’Architecture et 4 l’?Environnement (Guadeloupe-Guyane-
Martinique), B.P. 1002, 97178 Pointe-a-Pitre Cedex, Guadeloupe.
Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 1, P.O. Box
80102, 3508 TC Utrecht, Netherlands.
Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM), Route de
Motabo, B.P. 165, 97305 Cayenne Cedex.
CITES Management Authority: Direction de la Protection de la Nature Convention de
Washington, Secrétariat d’Etat auprés du Premier Ministre, Chargé de
l’Environnement et de la Qualité de la Vie, 14 bd du Général Leclerc, 92524 Neuilly-
Sur-Seine, France.
CITES Scientific Authority: Secrétariat Faune et Flore, Muséum National d’Histoire
Naturelle, 35 rue Cuvier, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France.
Additional References
Atlas des Départements d’Outre-mer: 4 - La Guyane (1979). CNRS/ORSTOM, Paris,
France. (Maps with chapters on topography, geology, geomorphology, pedology,
hydrology, vegetation and climate.)
Benoist, R. (1924, 1925). La végétation de la Guyane Frangaise. Bull. Soc. Bot. France
71: 1169-1177; 72: 1066-1078.
Cremers, G. (1984). L’Herbier du Centre ORSTOM de Cayenne 4a 25 ans. Taxon 33:
428-432.
Granville, J.-J. de (1975). Projets de réserves botaniques et forestiéres en Guyane.
ORSTOM, Cayenne. 29 pp. (16 maps.)
Granville, J.-J. de (1978). Recherches sur la flore et la végétation Guyanaises. Doctor’s
Thesis, Univ. Languedoc, Montpellier. 277 pp.
Granville, J.-J. de (1982). Rain forest and xeric flora refuges in French Guiana. In
Prance, G. (Ed.) (1982), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 159-181. (Vegetation map.)
Hoock, J. (1971). Les savanes guyanaises: Kourou. Essai de phytoécologie numérique.
Mémoire ORSTOM No. 44, Paris.
126
Gabon
Area 267,667 sq. km
Population 1,146,000
Floristics c. 8000 species in the forests (F.J. Breteler, 1984, in /itt.); c. 6,000
species (Floret, 1976; Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1); no accurate figure for endemism
available, but out of the 23 parts of the Flore du Gabon published by 1978, 243 species out
of 1333 total (just over 22%) were endemic (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1). Floristic
affinities Guinea-Congolian.
Vegetation Predominantly lowland rain forest, with mangrove and swamp forest
at the coast and considerable areas of secondary grassland; forest as a whole covers 85%
of the area. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 150 sq.
km/annum out of 205,000 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). According to Myers (1980, cited in
Appendix 1), who gives the same figure for the coverage of moist forest, evergreen rain
forest covers 25,000 sq. km near the coast; most of the remainder is evergreen or semi-
deciduous moist forest. As Gabon’s forests are relatively intact and floristically rich, they
are likely to become an important target area for plant conservation. The forests near the
coast are the least well preserved, supporting the densest population.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras
Aubréville, A. et al. (Eds) (1961- ). Flore du Gabon, 25 fasc. Muséum National
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. (About a quarter completed; 62 families covered so far,
including Caesalpiniaceae and Rubiaceae.)
Saint Aubin, G. de (1963). La Forét du Gabon. Publication No. 21, Centre Technique
Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne. 208 pp. (Descriptions, distributions; black
and white photographs throughout.)
Field-guides Letouzey (1969-1972), cited in Appendix 1, contains information
about the forests of Gabon.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 340 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic: E:1,
V:9, R:44, 1:31, nt:6; the remainder are K.
Botanic Gardens
Arboretum de Sibange, near Libreville.
Useful Addresses
National Herbarium of Gabon, CENAREST, B.P. 842, Libreville.
Additional References
Catinot, R. (1978). The forest ecosystems of Gabon: an overview. In Unesco-
UNEP/FAO (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 575-579.
Floret, J.J. (1976). Flore du Gabon. In Miége, J. and Stork, A.L. (1975, 1976), cited in
Appendix 1, pp. 575-580.
Hallé, N. and Le Thomas, A. (1968). Gabon. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 111-112.
Heitz, H. (1943). La Forét du Gabon. Larose, Paris. 292 pp. (Descriptions, references;
numerous line drawings and black and white photographs.)
~
127
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Pellegrin, F. (1924-1938). La flore du Mayombe d’aprés les récoltes de M. Georges Le
Testu. Mém. Soc. Linn. Normandie 26(2) (1924), 126 pp.; n.s. 1(3) (1928), 85 pp.;
n.s. 1(4) (1938), 115 pp. (Covers only the south-central uplands.)
Galapagos Islands
45 volcanic islands and islets on the equator, in the Pacific Ocean c. 972 km west of
Ecuador, of which they are a part. Most of the islands are relatively low; however, Isabela
and Fernandina have volcanoes reaching 1500 m. The highest point is on Isabela (1707 m).
About 92% of the land area is included in the National Park. In 1978, the islands were
designated a World Heritage Site under the World Heritage Convention.
Area 7844 sq. km
Population 4037 (1974 census, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics 543 indigenous vascular taxa, of which 229 endemic (IUCN figures
from Porter, 1978 and in prep.). Most of the endemics occur in the arid and Scalesia zones.
The flora is mostly related to that of adjacent South America (Porter, 1984).
Vegetation Coastal mangroves; Crytocarpus and Maytenus forest up to 10 m
altitude; arid zone up to 300 m, with cacti, Acacia, Erythrina and Scalesia; transition zone,
mainly between 75-180 m, with Pisonia, Tournefortia and Bursera; humid zone above
180 m, with dense evergreen Scalesia forests from 180-550 m; closed Miconia scrub and
evergreen Xanthoxylum forest between 400-700 m; pampa or fern-sedge zone from 550 m
to the summits of most volcanoes. The summits of Cerro Wolf and Cerro Azul on Isabela
are arid. For more detailed description of vegetation types see Hamann (1981), and
Wiggins and Porter (1971).
All the larger islands, including Isabela, San Crist6bal, Santa Cruz and Santa Maria, have
extensive areas of humid upland vegetation, threatened by overgrazing; the smaller islands
are drier, and almost entirely covered by arid zone vegetation.
Checklists and Floras
Wiggins, I.L. and Porter, D.M. (1971). Flora of the Galapagos Islands. Stanford Univ.
Press, California. 998 pp. (Treats 702 taxa; introduction covers geography,
vegetation, fauna.)
Information on Threatened Plants The main list is:
Porter, D.M. (in prep.). Red Data Bulletin: Galapagos Islands. (232 endemic vascular
plant taxa with notes on their distribution and conservation status.)
21 species are listed as threatened in Organizacién de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited
in Appendix 1. Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:9, V:15, R:111, 1:15, K:2, nt:77.
An index of threatened plants in cultivation is:
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1984). The Botanic
Gardens List of Rare and Threatened Species of the Galapagos and Juan Fernandez
Islands. Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body, Report No. 11. IUCN,
Kew. 6 pp. (Lists 17 rare and threatened taxa, from the Galapagos, reported in
cultivation, with gardens listed against each.)
128
Galapagos Islands
Useful Addresses
Charles Darwin Foundation for the Galapagos, Casilla 3891, Quito, Ecuador.
(Publishes a journal, Noticias de Galapagos, on conservation issues and research on
the islands.)
Charles Darwin Research Station, Bahia Académia, Isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos.
Superintendente Parque Nacional Galapagos, Puerto Ayora, Isla Santa Cruz,
Galapagos.
Additional References
Bowman, R.I. (Ed.) (1966). The Galapagos: Proceedings of the Galdpagos
International Scientific Project of 1964. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley. 318 pp.
(Covers physical environment, flora, fauna, evolution and adaptation of biota. See
in particular I.L. Wiggins on the origins and relationships of the flora, pp. 175-182;
E.Y. Dawson on cacti, pp. 209-214; and C.M. Rick on some plant-animal
relationships, pp. 215-224.)
Carlquist, S. (1965), cited in Appendix 1. (Origin, evolution and adaptations of plants
and animals.)
Carlquist, S. (1974), cited in Appendix 1. (Dispersal and evolution of plants and
animals; separate chapter on flora.)
Hamann, O. (1979). The survival strategies of some threatened Galapagos plants.
Noticias de Galapagos 30: 22-25.
Hamann, O. (1981). Plant communities of the Galapagos Islands. Dansk Bot. Arkiv
34(2). 163 pp. (Detailed analysis of plant communities; recent changes to
vegetation.)
Kramer, P. (1983). The Galapagos: islands under siege. Ambio 12(3-4): 186-190.
Perry, R. (Ed.) (1984). Key Environments: Galdpagos. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
(Physical geography, fauna, flora, conservation problems.)
Porter, D.M. (1978). Galapagos Islands vascular plants. In Bramwell, D. (Ed.), Plants
and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 225-256.
Porter, D.M. (1984). Relationships of the Galapagos flora. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 21:
243-251.
Schofield, E.K. (1973). Annotated bibliography of Galapagos botany, 1836-1971. Ann.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 60: 461-477. (286 references.)
Schofield, E.K. (1973). A unique and threatened flora. Gard. J. New York Bot. Gard.
23: 68-73.
Schofield, E.K. (1973). Galapagos flora: the threat of introduced plants. Biol. Conserv.
5: 48-51.
Schofield, E.K. (1980). Annotated bibliography of Galapagos botany. Supplement 1.
Brittonia 32(4): 537-547.
Werff, H.H. van der (1978). The Vegetation of the Galapagos Islands: Proefschrift.
Lakenman and Ochtman, Zierikzee, Netherlands. 102 pp. (Includes checklist.)
Werff, H.H. van der (1979). Conservation and vegetation of the Galapagos Islands. In
Bramwell, D. (Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 391-404.
(Describes vegetation types; conservation priorities.)
129
Gambia
Area 10,689 sq. km
Population 630,000
Floristics 530 species (Jarvis, 1980), with c. 3 endemics.
Flora in eastern half of country with Sudanian affinities; western half with Guinea-
Congolian and Sudanian affinities.
Vegetation Most covered by Sudanian woodland without characteristic
dominants. Coastal area with mangrove vegetation, and small area of evergreen forest
interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivation. Estimated rate of deforestation for
closed broadleaved forest 22 sq. km/annum out of 650 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Gambia is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa,
cited in Appendix 1.
Jarvis, A.C.E. (1980). A checklist of Gambian plants. Cyclostyled. 30 pp. (530 species
listed.)
Percival, D.A. (1968). The common trees and shrubs of the Gambia. Cyclostyled.
62 pp. (142 species described.)
Williams, F.N. (1907). Florula Gambica. Bull. Herb. Boissier, Sér. 2, 7: 81-96,
193-208, 369-386. (Annotated checklist of 285 species.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 3 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no
categories assigned.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Wildlife Conservation Department,
Ministry of Water Resources and the Environment, 5 Marina Parade, Banjul.
Additional References
Rosevear, D.R. (1937). Forest conditions of the Gambia. Emp. For. J. 16: 217-226.
Gambier Islands
The Gambier Islands (or Mangaréva) are a group of volcanic islands and atolls, 5600 km
east of New Caledonia in the South Pacific Ocean, at 23°10’S and 135°W. The highest
point is 441 m, on Mangaréva Island, the largest island in the Gambier group. The islands
form part of the Tuamotu-Gambier administrative division of French Polynesia.
Area 25 sq. km
Population 585 (1983)
Floristics About 250 vascular plant species, including introductions. 41 native
vascular plant species, of which 11 are endemic (Huguenin, 1974).
130
Gambier Islands
Vegetation Only fragments of the original forest remain, most having been
decimated by burning and overgrazing by goats. Apart from small areas of forest on the
precipitous southern slopes of Mt Mokoto, Mangaréva Island is mainly covered by
Miscanthus grassland. Coconuts have been introduced on most islands in the group
(Cooke, 1935; Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras The Flora of Southeastern Polynesia (Brown and Brown,
1931-1935, cited in Appendix 1) includes only 29 indigenous flowering plants for the
Gambier Islands and Pitcairn Island District. See also:
Copeland, E.B. (1932). Pteridophytes of the Society Islands. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop
Mus. 93. 86 pp. (Descriptions and keys; notes on distribution.)
Information on Threatened Plants All endemics suspected to be threatened by
overgrazing and fire (F.R. Fosberg, 1984, in litt.). Achyranthes mangarevica is included in
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978) as Extinct or possibly Endangered; Gouania
mangarevica is only known from Mangaréva Island and probably also Extinct or
Endangered.
Additional References
Cooke, C.M. (1935). Mangarevan expedition. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 133: 33-71.
(Includes description of vegetation.)
Huguenin, B. (1974). La végétation des Iles Gambier, relevé botanique des espéces
introduites. Cahiers du Pacifique 18(2): 459-471.
German Democratic Republic
Area 108,177 sq. km
Population 16,658,000
Floristics 1842 native vascular species (Rauschert et al., 1978). 3 endemic species,
1 of them extinct (IUCN figures). Areas of high floristic diversity: vicinity of Thiiringer
Becken in the south-west, the Harz mountains of the west (D. Benkert, 1984, in litt.).
Elements: Atlantic, Central European, Boreal and subalpine.
Vegetation Mostly an agricultural landscape, especially in the glaciated north-
central lowland depression. In the north, oaks, pine and beech constitute main woodland
cover, but most now removed or replaced by conifer plantations. Scattered beechwoods
still survive along Baltic coast. In the south, vertical zonation of oak and hornbeam
forests, giving way to montane beech forests, and above 500 m, forests of beech, fir and
spruce. Subalpine and alpine vegetation restricted to small area in Harz mountains.
Habitats under greatest threat: grasslands, heathlands and wetlands (Benkert, in /itt.).
Checklists and Floras The German Democratic Republic is included in the
completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1), although plants
in G.D.R. are not distinguished from those in the Federal Republic. Also see Oberdorfer
(1983), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Rothmaler, W. (1970-1984). Exkursionsflora fiir die Gebiete der DDR und der BRD,
4 vols. Volk und Wissen, Berlin. Covers both F.R.G. and G.D.R.; 1 - Niedere
Pflanzen (Lower plants), 9th Ed. (1984) by R. Schubert, HLH. Handke and
131
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
H. Pankow; 2 - Gefasspflanzen (Vascular plants), 11th Ed. (1982) by W. Rothmaler,
W. Meusel and R. Schubert; 3 - Atlas der Gefasspflanzen (Atlas of Vascular
Plants), Sth Ed. (1970) by W. Rothmaler; 4 - Kritischer Band, 5th Ed. (1983) by
R. Schubert, W. Vent and M. Bassler.
Information on Threatened Plants The national threatened plant list is:
Rauschert, S., Benkert, D., Hempel, W. and Jeschke, L. (1978). Liste der in der
Deutschen Demokratischen Republik Erloschenen und Gefahrdeten Farn- und
Blitenpflanzen. Kulturbund der D.D.R., Berlin. 56 pp. (Lists over 500 threatened
taxa and their status in individual Districts; colour photographs.)
District threatened plant lists include:
Benkert, D. (1978). Liste der in den brandenburgischen Bezirken erloschenen und
gefahrdeten Moose, Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen (List of extinct and endangered
mosses, ferns and flowering plants in the Brandenburg District). Naturschutzarbeit
in Berlin und Brandenburg 14(2/3): 34-80. (Black and white photographs.)
Benkert, D. (1982). Vorlaufige Liste der verschollenen und gefahrdeten Grosspilzarten
der DDR. Boletus 6(2): 21-32. (A preliminary list of missing and endangered fungi.)
Benkert, D. (1984). Die verschollenen und vom Aussterben bedrohten Bliitenpflanzen
und Farne der Bezirke Potsdam, Frankfurt, Cottbus and Berlin. (Extinct and
threatened vascular plants and ferns in the Districts of Potsdam, Frankfurt, Cottbus
and Berlin.) Gleditschia 11: 251-259.
Benkert, D., Succow, M. and Wisniewski, N. (1981). Zum Wandel der floristischen
Artenmannigfaltigkeit in der DDR (On the changes in the floristic composition of
the flora of the G.D.R.). Gleditschia 8: 11-30. (Results of a survey about problems
of species protection with regard to the influence of man on the environment;
briefly discusses degree of threat to individual species, especially orchids and
threatened plant communities.)
Fukarek, F. (1980). Uber die Gefahrdung der Flora der Nordbezirke der DDR.
Phytocoenologia 7: 174-182. (English abstract.)
Hempel, W. (1978). Verzeichnis der in den Drei Sdchsischen Bezirken (Dresden,
Leipzig, Karl-Marx-Stadt) vorkommenden Wildwachsenden Farn- und
Bliitenpflanzen mit Angabe ihrer Geftéhrdungsgrade (Index of native ferns and
flowering plants in 3 districts and their conservation status). Bezirksnatur-
schutzorganen, Dresden. 65 pp.
Jeschke, L. et al. (1978). Liste der in Mecklenburg (Bezirke Rostock, Schwerin und
Neubrandenburg) erloschenen und gefahrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen.
Botanischer Rundbrief fiir den Bezirk Neubrandenburg 8: 1-29. (Lists over 600
extinct and endangered plant taxa.)
Rauschert, S. (1980). Liste der in den thiiringischen Bezirken Erfurt, Gera und Suhl
erloschenen und gefahrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen. Landschaftspflege und
Naturschutz in Thiiringen 17(1): 1-32.
Rauschert, S. et al. (1978). Liste der in den Bezirken Halle und Magdeburg erloschenen
und gefahrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen. Naturschutz und naturkundliche
Heimatforschung in den Bezirken Halle and Magdeburg 15(1): 1-31.
A list of endangered plant communities is in preparation (Benkert, in Jitt.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - Ex:1; E:1; nt:1;
non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - V:12, R:3, I:2 (world categories).
132
German Democratic Republic
Laws Protecting Plants National legislation was passed on 6 July 1970:
Anordnung zum Schutze von Wildwachsenden Pflanzen und Nichtjagdbaren
Wildebenden Tieren (Order for the protection of wild growing plants and wild animals).
This provides protection for 26 species of pteridophytes and angiosperms and the native
species of 13 named genera. For more details see:
Weinitschke, H. (Ed.) (1971). Gesetzliche Regelungen der Sozialistischen Landeskultur
in der DDR. Kulturbund der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Zentrale
Kommission Natur und Heimat des Prasidialrates, Zentraler Fachausschluss
Landeskultur und Naturschutz. 103 pp.
Botanic Gardens Many, as listed in Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Useful reference:
Ebel, F. and Rauschert, S. (1982). Die Bedeutung der Botanischen Garten fiir die
Erhaltung gefahrdeter und vom Aussterben bedrohter heimischer Pflanzenarten (The
importance of botanic gardens for the preservation of native plants which are
endangered and threatened by extinction). Arch. Naturschutz und Landschaftforsch.
22(3): 187-199. (English summary.)
Useful Addresses
Centre for Protection and Improvement of the Environment, Schnellerstrasse 140, 1190
Berlin.
Institute of Landscape Research and Nature Conservation, 4020 Halle, Neuwerk 21.
Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water Conservation, Hans Beimler Street
70/52, 1020 Berlin.
CITES Management Authority: Ministerium fiir Land-Forst- und Nahrungs-
guterwirtschaft der D.D.R., Képenicker Allee 39-57, 1157 Berlin.
CITES Scientific Authority: Zentrales Staatliches Amt fiir Pflanzenquarantane beim
Ministerium, Hermannswerder 20A, 15 Potsdam.
Additional References
Hueck, K. (1936). Pflanzengeographie Deutschlands. Berlin.
Rauschert, S. (1975). Floristic report on Germany (1961-1971). B. Deutsche
Demokratische Republik. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 559-577.
Schlosser, S. (1982). Genressourcen fiir Forschung und Nutzung. Naturschutz. Bezirken
Halle und Magdeburg 19: 1-96. (Contains a series of papers about the potential use
of plant genetic resources in the G.D.R.; colour illus.; line drawings; maps.)
Germany, Federal Republic of
Area 248,744 sq. km
Population 61,214,000
Floristics 2476 native vascular species (Blab ef al., 1984); 3 endemics (IUCN
figures). Elements: Central European, sub-Atlantic, sub-Mediterranean and alpine.
Vegetation Little natural vegetation due to industry, agriculture and plantation
forestry. Most semi-natural vegetation survives on higher ground and in the south. Beech
woods are the original natural vegetation of lowland and montane areas, together with
133
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
semi-natural oak and hornbeam in the centre and south (Black Forest, Alps and Bavaria);
today, however, largely replaced by pine and spruce plantations, especially in the north.
Riverine woodlands replaced widely by poplar and maple plantations. Forest, including
plantations, occupy about 20% of land area (Bundesamt Wiesbaden, 1983).
34% of forests threatened by acid rain (Agren, 1984). Other habitats under threat:
grasslands, heathlands, peat-bogs, fens and other wetlands.
Checklists and Floras Included in the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980), although plants in F.R.G. are not distinguished from those in the German
Democratic Republic. Covered by the J/lustrierte Flora von Mitteleuropa (Hegi, 1935- ).
Both are cited in Appendix 1. Only recent national and regional Floras are listed below,
Floras for individual Lander being too numerous.
Garcke, A. et al. (1972). Illustrierte Flora, Deutschland und Angrenzende Gebiete, 23rd
Ed. by K. von Weihe. Parey, Berlin. 1607 pp. (Line drawings.)
Schmeil, O. and Fitschen, J. (1976). Flora von Deutschland und seinen Angrenzenden
Gebieten, 86th Ed. by W. Rauh and K. Senghas. Quelle and Meyer, Heidelberg.
516 pp. (illus.)
For a floristic bibliography, see Hamann and Wagenitz (1977), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Jager, E.J. and Miiller-Uri, C. (1981-1982.) Bibliographie: Gefasspflanzen
Zentraleuropas. Wuchsform und Lebensgeschichte. Terrestrische Okologie 1(1),
122 pp. and 1(2), 122 pp.
Merxmiiller, H. and Lippert, W. (1975). Floristic Report on Germany (1961-1971). A.
Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 469-558. (In German.)
A floristic mapping scheme for the whole country is in progress (Zentralstelle fiir die
Floristische Kartierung, address below). Details are given in the following papers:
Haeupler, H. et al. (1976). Grundlagen und Arbeitsmethoden fiir die Kartierung der
Flora Mitteleuropas. Anleitung fiir die Mitarbeiter in der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland, 2nd Ed. 75 pp. E. Goltae, Gottingen.
Niklfeld, H. (1971). Bericht iiber die Kartierung der Flora Mitteleuropas. Taxon 20(4):
545-571.
Schonfelder, P. (1983). Floristische Kartierung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
(Gefasspflanzen/Pteridophyta, Spermatophyta). Natur und Landschaft 58(6):
235-236.
For local atlases see:
Haeupler, H. (1976). Atlas zur Flora von Siidniedersachsen. Scripta Geobotanica 10.
367 pp.
Haffner, P., Sauer, E. and Wolf, P. (1979). Atlas der Gefasspflanzen des Saarlandes.
(Edited by the Minister fiir Umwelt, Raumordnung und Bauwesen.) Wiss. Schr.-R.
Obersten Naturschutzbeh6rde 1.
Mergenthaler, O. (1982). Verbreitungsatlas zur Flora von Regensburg.-Hoppea,
Denkschr. Regensb. Bot. Ges. 40(5-12): 1-297.
Seybold, S. (1977). Die aktuelle Verbreitung der héheren Pflanzen im Raum
Wiirttemberg. Beih. z. d. Veréff. Natursch. und Landschpfl. in Baden-Wiirttemberg
9: 1-201.
Field-guides 1 national and 2 regional field-guides are listed in order below. See
also Oberdorfer (1983), cited in Appendix 1:
134
Germany, Federal Republic of
Hegi, G., Merxmiiller, H. and Reisigl, H. (1977). Alpenflora: Die Wichtigeren
Alpenpflanzen Bayerns, Osterreichs und der Schweiz. Parey, Berlin. 194 pp. (Covers
Bavaria, Austria and Switzerland; introduction includes ecological descriptions of
plant communities; lists protected plants; illus.; maps.)
Rothmaler, W. (1970-1984). Exkursionsflora fiir die Gebiete der DDR und der BRD,
4 vols. Volk und Wissen, Berlin. Covers both F.R.G. and G.D.R.; 1 - Niedere
Pflanzen (Lower plants), 9th Ed. (1984) by R. Schubert, H.H. Handke and H.
Pankow; 2 - Gefasspflanzen (Vascular plants), 11th Ed. (1982) by W. Rothmaler,
W. Meusel and R. Schubert; 3 - Atlas der Gefasspflanzen (Atlas of Vascular
Plants), Sth Ed. (1970) by W. Rothmaler; 4 - Kritischer Band, 5th Ed. (1983) by
R. Schubert, W. Vent and M. Bassler.
Schauer, T. and Caspari, C. (1978). Pflanzenfiihrer. BLV, Miinchen. 417 pp. (Covers
F.R.G. only; over 1400 colour illus.)
See also Miiller and Kast (1969) and Weber (1982).
Information on Threatened Plants Vast quantity of literature. Only the most
recent national lists and those for individual Lander are given below. National lists:
Blab, J., Nowak, E., Trautmann, W. and Sukopp, H. (1984). Rote Liste der
Gefahrdeten Tiere und Pflanzen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 4th Ed. Kilda-
Verlag, Greven. 270 pp. (Lists threatened flowering plants, mosses, lichens, fungi
and algae.)
Sukopp, H. (1974). ‘Rote Liste’ der in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland gefahrdeten
Arten von Farn- und Blitenpflanzen (1. Fassung). Natur und Landschaft 49(12):
315-322.
Below are lists for the Lander of Bayern, Niedersachsen, Baden-Wiirttemberg, Hessen,
Schleswig-Holstein, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland, and for the
Region of Senne and West Berlin:
Brinkmann, H. (1978). Schiitzenswerte Pflanzen und Pflanzengesellschaften der Senne.
Ber. d. Naturwiss. Ver. Bielefeld. Pp. 36-38. (Includes a threatened fern and
vascular plant list for the region of Senne.)
Foerster, E., Lohmeyer, W., Schumacher, W. and Wolff-Straub, R. (1982). Florenliste
von Nordrhein-Westfalen. Schr.-R. der LOLF 7. 89 pp.
Haeupler, H., Montag, A., W6ldecke, K. and Garve, E. (1983). Rote Liste
Gefasspflanzen Niedersachsen und Bremen. Fachbehdérde fiir Naturschutz, Merkblatt
Nr. 18. 34 pp. (Edited by Niedersachsisches Landesverwaltungsamt.)
Haffner, P., Sauer, E. and Wolf, P. (1979)-Atlas der Gefasspflanzen des Saarlandes.
Wiss. Schr.-R. der Obersten Naturschutzbehérde, Vol. 1 with appendix: Rote Liste
der im Saarland ausgestorbenen und gefihrdeten héheren Pflanzen. 12 pp.
Harms, K.H., Philippi, G. and Seybold, S. (1983). Verschollene und gefahrdete
Pflanzen in Baden-Wiirttemberg. Rote Liste der Farne und Bliitenpflanzen
(Pteridophyta et Spermatophyta), 2nd revision. Beih. Verdff. Naturschutz
Landschaftpflege Bad.-Wiirtt. 32. 160 pp.
Kalheber, H. ef a/. (1980). Rote Liste der in Hessen ausgestorbenen, verschollenen und
gefahrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen. 2. Hessische Landesanstalt fiir Umwelt.
46 pp.
Korneck, D., Lang, W. and Reichert, H. (1984). Rote Liste der in Rheinland-Pfalz
ausgestorbenen, verschollenen und gefihrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen, 2nd Ed.
Ministerium fiir Soziales, Gesundheit und Umwelt.
135
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Kiinne, H. (1974). Rote Liste bedrohter Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen in Bayern. Schr.-R.
Natursch. Landschaftspfl. 4: 1-44. (Lists 566 species; conservation categories not
identical with those of IUCN; a revised list is in preparation.)
Landesamt fiir Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege Schleswig-Holstein (1982). Rote
Liste der gefahrdeten Pflanzen und Tiere Schleswig-Holsteins. Schr.-R. Landesamt
Natursch. Landschaftspfl. 5. 149 pp.
Landesanstalt fiir Okologie, Landschaftentwicklung und Forstplanung NRW (1979).
Rote Liste der in Nordrhein-Westfalen gefahrdeten Pflanzen und Tiere. Schr.-R. der
LOLF Nordrhein-Westfalen 4. 106 pp.
Raabe, E.-W. (1975). Rote Liste der in Schleswig-Holstein und Hamburg vom
Aussterben bedrohten héheren Pflanzen. Heimat 82(7/8): 191-200. (Lists 148
threatened taxa with distribution maps.)
Schénfelder, P. et a/. (in prep.). Entwurf zur Neufassung der Roten Liste der
ausgestorbenen, verschollenen und gefahrdeten Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen in Bayern.
38 pp.
Sukopp, H. and Elvers, H. (Eds) (1982). Rote Liste der gefahrdeten Pflanzen und Tiere
in Berlin (West). Landesentwicklung u. Umweltforschung 11. 374 pp.
See also:
Raabe, W., Brockmann, C. und Dierssen, K. (1982). Verbreitungskarten
ausgestorbener, verschollener und sehr seltener Gefasspflanzen in Schleswig-
Holstein. Mitt. Arb.-gem. Geobot. Schleswig-Holstein und Hamburg 32. 317 pp.
Sukopp, H. (1972). Grundziige eines Programms fiir den Schutz von Pflanzenarten in
der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Schr.-R. Landschaftspfl. und Natursch. 7: 67-79.
Sukopp, H. and Trautmann, W. (Eds) (1976). Veranderungen der Flora und Fauna in
der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Proceedings of a symposium 7-9 October 1975.
Schr.-R. Vegetationskde 10. 409 pp. (Contains many relevant articles (in German
with English summaries); see for example W. Trautmann on changes in the flora of
woods and in woodland vegetation of the F.R.G. in recent decades (pp. 91-108) and
J. Reichholf on ecological aspects of the changing flora and fauna in the F.R.G.
(pp. 393-399).)
Sukopp, H. and Trautmann, W. (1981). Causes of the decline of threatened plants in
the Federal Republic of Germany. In Synge, H. (Ed.) (1981), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 113-116. (Identifies and discusses main threats to the flora.)
Sukopp, H., Trautmann, W. and Korneck, D. (1978). Auswertung der Roten Liste
gefahrdeter Farn- und Bliitenpflanzen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland fiir den
Arten- und Biotopschutz. Schr.-R. fiir Vegetationskunde 12. 138 pp. (Detailed
analysis of 2667 threatened plant taxa, threats, habitats, recommendations.)
Many plant conservation data-bases, some computerized, are underway in individual
Lander. A data-base co-ordinating these activities is being developed at the Institut fiir
Vegetationskunde, Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Naturschutz und Landschaftsdékologie
(Federal Research Centre for Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology) in Bonn
(address below). For summary details of the individual projects in the Lander see:
Kohlhammer, W. (1983). Botanische und Zoologische Artenerbungen in der Bundes-
republik Deutschland. Natur und Landschaft 58(6). 255 pp.
F.R.G. is included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983,
cited in Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - E:2,
nt:1; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - Ex:1, E:4, V:12, R:5, 1:3 (world
categories).
136
Germany, Federal Republic of
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the UK Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which includes data sheets on 10 plants Endangered in F.R.G., 3 of them Endangered on a
world scale.
Two journals regularly containing plant conservation articles are Natur und Landschaft
published by W. Kohlhammer, Koln, and Schriftenreihe fiir Landschaftspflege und
Naturschutz, Bonn-Bad Godesburg. See also: Dokumentation fiir Umweltschutz und
Landschaftspflege, Dokumentat. und Bibl. der Bundesforsch. Naturschutz und
Landschaftsdkologie.
Laws Protecting Plants The Federal Species Protection Order of 30 August, 1980
(Bundesartenschutzverordnung - BArtSchV), in accordance with Article 22 of the Federal
Nature Protection Act of 1976 (Bundesnaturschaftzgesetz - BNatSchG), provides special
protection for over 160 plant species. These laws are published as:
Der Bundesminister fiir Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten (1976). Gesetz iiber
Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz - BNatSchG) vom
20.12.76. Bundesnaturschutzgesetz. Der Bundesminister fiir Ernahrung,
Landwirtschaft und Forsten. 32 pp.
Der Bundesminister fiir Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten (1980). Verordnung
liber besonders geschiitzte Arten wildebender Tiere und wildwachsender Pflanzen
(Bundesartenschutzverordnung - BArtSchV). Bundesgesetzblatt 1(54): 1565-1601.
See also:
Miller, T. and Kast, D. (1969). Die Geschiitzten Pflanzen Deutschlands (The Protected
Plants of Germany). Schwabischen Albvereins, Stuttgart. 348 pp. (Keys; brief
morphological, biological and ecological descriptions; distribution data.)
Weber, H.C. (1982). Geschiitzte Pflanzen, Merkmale, Bliitezeit und Standort aller
Geschiitzten Arten Mitteleuropas. Belser, Stuttgart. 188 pp.
Voluntary Organizations
Bayerische Botanische Gesellschaft (Bavarian Botanical Society), Menzinger Strasse 67,
8000 Miinchen 19.
Deutsche Botanische Gesellschaft (German Botanical Society), Untere Karspiile 2, 3400
G6ttingen.
Deutscher Natiirschutzring e.V.(DNR), Bundesverband fiir Umweltschutz
Kalkuhlstrasse 24, Postfach 32 02 10, 5300 Bonn 3.
Schiitzgemeinschaft Deutscher Wald e.V., Meckenheimer Allee 9, 5300 Bonn 1.
Stiftung zum Schutze gefahrdeter Pflanzen (Institute for the Protection of Endangered
Plants), Kalkuhlstrasse 24, 5300 Bonn 3.
WWE-Germany (Umweltstiftung WWF-Deutschland), Sophienstrasse 44, 6000
Frankfurt/Main 90.
Botanic Gardens Numerous, as listed in Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1;
most gardens are engaged in species conservation activities either on a local or regional
scale. Only those subscribing to the Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body
are listed here:
Alter Botanischer Garten der Universitat Géttingen, Untere Karspiile 1, 3400
Gottingen.
Botanischer Garten Miinchen, Menzingerstrasse 63-67, 8000 Miinchen.
137
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Botanischer Garten und Museum Berlin-Dahlem, K6nigin-Luise-Strasse 6-8, 1000
Berlin 33.
Botanischer Garten Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Universitatstrasse 150, Postfach 102148,
4630 Bochum 1.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat, Auf dem Lahnbergen, 3550 Marburg.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Diisseldorf, Universitatstrasse 1, 4000 Diisseldorf 1.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 340, 6900
Heidelberg 1.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat-Kiel, Olshausenstrasse 40-60, Biologiezentrum, 2300
Kiel.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Mainz, Saarstrasse 21, Postfach 3980, 6500 Mainz.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat, Auf dem Lahnbergen, 3550 Marburg.
Botanischer Garten der Universitat Oldenburg, Philosophenweg 41, 2900 Oldenburg.
Neuer Botanischer Garten der Universitat Géttingen, Grisebachstrasse la, 3400
Géttingen.
Palmengarten der Stadt Frankfurt, Siesmeyerstrasse 61, 6000 Frankfurt/Main 1.
A seed bank for rare and threatened species has been established at the Institut fir
Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenziichtung, Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Landwirtschaft
Braunschweig-Vélkenrode, Bundesalle 50, 3300 Braunschweig.
Useful Addresses
Arbeitsgemeinschaft Beruflicher Pflanzen, Kalkuhlstrasse 24, 5300 Bonn 3.
Bundesministerium fiir Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten (Abt. 62 Umwelt,
Naturschutz), Rochusstrasse 1, Postfach 140270, 5300 Bonn 1. (Each of the Lander
have additional authorities for nature conservation.)
Institut fiir Vegetationskunde, Bundesforschungsanstalt fiir Naturschutz und
Landschaftsékologie (Federal Research Centre for Nature Conservation and
Landscape Ecology), Konstantinstrasse 110, 5330 Bonn 2.
TRAFFIC (Germany), WWF-Germany, address above.
Zentralstelle fiir die Floristische Kartierung. Bereich Nord: Ruhr-Universitat, Spezielle
Botanik, Postfach 102148, 4630 Bochum 1; Bereich Siid: Universitat Regensburg,
Botanisches Institut, Postfach 397, 8400 Regensburg.
CITES Management Authority: Bundesministerium fiir Ernahrung, Landwirtschaft und
Forsten, Referat 623, Postfach 140270, 5300 Bonn 1.
CITES Scientific Authority: Bundesamt fiir Ernahrung und Forstwirtschaft, Postfach
180203, 6000 Frankfurt/Main 1.
Additional References
Agren, C. (1984). A report sounds the alarm: 34% of West German forest land
damaged. Acid News 1: 6-7. (Newsletter from the Swedish and Norwegian NGO
Secretariats on Acid Rain, address under Sweden.)
Bundesamt Wiesbaden (Ed.) (1983). Statistisches Jahrbuch 1983 fiir die Bundesrepublik
Deutschland. W. Kohlhammer GmbH., Stuttgart. 780 pp.
Raabe, E.-W. (1978). Uber den Wandel unserer Pflanzenwelt in neuerer Zeit. Kieler
Notizen zur Pflanzenkunde 10(1/2): 1-24.
138
Ghana
Area 238,305 sq. km
Population 13,044,000
Floristics 3600 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1); 43 endemic
species (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1); diversity greatest in evergreen forests of
south-west. |
Flora with Sudanian (northern c. 1/2, mainly woodland and grassland flora) and Guinea-
Congolian (south-west corner, mainly forest flora) affinities.
Vegetation Small patches of rain forest are all that remain of the vast area of
forest which used to cover rather less than a third of Ghana in the south-west, but which
have been replaced by cultivation and secondary grassland; various types of grassland and
wooded grassland/woodland with abundant Isoberlinia cover most of the remainder; a
coastal band of strand and mangrove.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 220 sq. km/annum out of
17,180 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). According to Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1), the
remaining forest totals 19,864 sq. km in reserves, plus about 500 sq. km outside reserves;
the rate of depletion of forest by shifting cultivation has been estimated to be as high as
5000 sq. km/annum.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Ghana is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa,
cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Irvine, F.R. (1961). Woody Plants of Ghana: with Special Reference to their Uses.
Oxford Univ. Press, London. 868 pp. (Plates, some in colour; line drawings.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedburg, I. (Ed.) (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Ghana, pp. 88-91, by J.B.
Hall, contains 210 species and infraspecific taxa divided between five categories of
endangerment, not IUCN-compatible.)
IUCN has records of 73 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic, of which 16
are known to be rare or threatened - E:1, V:5, R:9, I:1.
Botanic Gardens
Aburi Botanic Garden, Aburi.
University Botanic Garden, c/o Department of Botany, University of Ghana, P.O. Box
55, Legon.
University Botanic Garden, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.
Useful Addresses
Forestry Department, P.O. Box 527, Accra.
National Herbarium, University of Ghana (address above).
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Department of Game and Wildlife,
P.O. Box M 239, Ministries Post Office, Accra.
Additional References
Ahn, P.M. (1959). The principal areas of remaining original forest in western Ghana,
and their potential value for agricultural purposes. J. West Afr. Sci. Assoc. 5(2):
91-100. (With small-scale vegetation map.)
139
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Asibey, E.O.A. and Owusu, J.G.K. (1982). The case for high-forest national parks in
Ghana. Envir. Conserv. 9(4): 293-304. (With five black and white photographs.)
Hall, J.B. and Swaine, M.D. (1981). Distribution and Ecology of Vascular Plants in a
Tropical Rain Forest: Forest Vegetation in Ghana. Junk, The Hague. 383 pp.
(Geobot. 1.)
Lawson, G.W. (1968). Ghana. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp 81-86.
Taylor, C.J. (1952). The vegetation zones of the Gold Coast. For. Dep. Bull. 4: 1-12.
Govt Printer, Accra. (With coloured vegetation map 1:1,500,000.)
Taylor, C.J. (1960). Vegetation. In Synecology and Silviculture in Ghana. Thomas
Nelson, London. Pp. 31-73.
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a Dependent Territory of the United Kingdom. ‘The Rock’, a limestone ridge
3 km long and 426 m high, is the dominant feature.
Area 6.5 sq. km
Population 31,000
Floristics 587 native vascular species (Wolley-Dod, 1914). 1 endemic taxon
(IUCN figure). A Mediterranean flora.
Vegetation A large proportion of original vegetation on ‘The Rock’ cleared for
water catchment constructions or replaced by conifer plantations; remaining semi-natural
vegetation includes: high maquis with Phillyrea, Rhamnus and the palm Chamaerops
humilis (on the middle slopes); and a rich chasmophytic flora containing species of
Dianthus, Iberis, Scilla and Saxifraga on the inaccessible ledges and east slope.
Checklists and Floras Plants from Gibraltar are included in Flora Europaea
(Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1), but are not distinguished from plants in
Spain. There are no other recent publications about the flora, so see:
Wolley-Dod, A.H. (1914). A Flora of Gibraltar and the neighbourhood. J. Bot. 52.
Supplement. 131 pp. (Native and naturalized vascular plants of The Rock of
Gibraltar and neighbouring parts of Andalucia; habitat notes.)
Also relevant:
Hamilton, A.P. (1970). The Flowers of Gibraltar. Gibraltar Tourist Office.
Stocken, C.M. (1969). Andalusian Flowers and Countryside. Privately published by the
author, Devon, U.K. 184 pp. (General desciption of many aspects of Gibraltar,
including vegetation.)
Field-guides
Anon (1968). The Wild Flowers of Gibraltar and Neighbourhood. Committee of the
Gibraltar Garrison Library, Gibraltar. 79 pp. (Illus. only.)
See also Polunin and Smythies (1973), in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants None locally. The section for Gibraltar in the
European threatened plants list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in Appendix 1)
140
Gibraltar
contains one endemic (Rare) and 3 non-endemics rare or threatened on a regional scale, all
insufficiently known on a world scale.
Useful Addresses
The Gibraltar Society, John Mackintosh Hall, Gibraltar.
Glorieuses, Iles
Two coralline islands 183 km WNW of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, 11°34’S,
47°19’E. Grande Glorieuse is by far the larger; area c. 4 sq. km. 43 species of plant
(including introductions) are listed in Battistini and Cremers (1972). The smaller island, Ile
-du Lys, has only 8 species.
The vegetation of Grande Glorieuse consists of a littoral dune belt with grasses, a tufted
sedge turf behind it, and, inland, dense woodland 2-4 m high with no understorey. Much
of the island is given over to coconut plantations. Ile de Lys has very little vegetation, and
it is not zoned.
References
Battistini, R. and Cremers, G. (1972). Geomorphology and vegetation of Iles
Glorieuses. Atoll Res. Bull. 159. 10 pp. (With vegetation map, 19 black and white
photographs.)
Hemsley, W.B. (1919). Flora of Aldabra: with notes on the flora of neighbouring
islands. Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1919: 108-153. (Checklist, with descriptions of new
species.)
Renvoize, S.A. (1979). The origins of Indian Ocean island floras. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 107-129.
Stoddart, D.R. (Ed.) (1967). Ecology of Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean. Atoll Res. Bull.
118. 141 pp. (Includes 41 black and white photographs, list of endemic plant
species, bibliography of Aldabra; see especially paper by Stoddart, pp. 53-61, on the
ecology of coral islands north of Madagascar, but excluding Aldabra.)
Great Barrier Reef Islands
The Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef in the world, extends for more than 2000 km
along the north-east coast of Australia, between 24°30’-10°41’S and 145°-154°E. At its
northern end it is c. 160 km from the mainland. The reef consists of c. 2500 individual
coral reefs, some with coral sand islands (or cays). The total area is c. 207,200 sq. km. The
Great Barrier Reef is part of Australia.
The highest point is 40 m, but most of the reef is less than 5 m above sea-level and has no
vegetation. Heron Island (23°25’S 151°55’E) has Casuarina, Cordia and Pisonia forest;
mangrove swamps are found in the Low Islands (16°18’S 145°35’E); several sand cays
support scrub vegetation (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
Parts of the Great Barrier Reef have been gazetted as a national park (e.g. parts of Green
Island (16°43’S 146°E) and Heron Island in 1937 and 1943, respectively). The first part of
141
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was proclaimed in 1979, and the whole of the reef was
accepted as a World Heritage Site in 1981.
References
Bennett, I. (1973). The Great Barrier Reef. Frederick Warne, London.
Frankel, E. (1978). Bibliography of the Great Barrier Reef Province. Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park Authority, Canberra. (Lists 4444 publications.)
Greece
Area 131,986 sq. km
Population 9,884,000
Floristics One of the richest floras in Europe; c. 5500 species and subspecies, of
which 20% are endemic (Rechinger, 1965); excluding Crete and the East Aegean,
3950-4100 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited in Appendix 1)
from Flora Europaea. 763 endemic taxa (IUCN figures), including Crete which, because
of its size and separate treatment in Flora Europaea, is treated separately below.
Elements: Mediterranean, alpine.
Most species occur in the lowlands, many as part of the widespread pan- and especially
east-Mediterranean element, but endemism concentrated on the mountains and on many
islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. Mt Olimbos (Olympus) alone supports c. 1700
vascular plant species from sea-level to its summit, almost 20 endemic to the mountain
(Strid and Papanicolaou, in press). Other centres of endemism include Crete (see below),
the Peloponnese and central Greece (which includes Mt Parnass6s).
Vegetation Although formerly well wooded, forest clearance, fire and centuries
of overgrazing by sheep and goats have created large areas of maquis, phrygana and
secondary steppe. 3 main vegetation zones: coastal plains and hills, mostly now with
evergreen scrub and in the south degraded phrygana or garigue but formerly with dry
evergreen forest; the middle slopes of mountains, now cultivated but still supporting large
areas of forest dominated by conifers (Pinus, Abies, Juniperus), chestnut, oak and beech;
above the tree-line a variety of alpine habitats, mainly of rock and scree, with grassland in
the north. Today, forests occupy c. 250,000 sq. km (c. 19% of Greece), of which c. 6% is
broadleaved and the remainder coniferous.
Checklists and Floras Greece, excluding the East Aegean Islands, is included in
the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). The East
Aegean Islands are included in Davis (1965- ). All of Greece will be covered in the Med-
Checklist (cited in Appendix 1). No recent national Flora is available but the most
important reference work, although rather old and relating to Greece’s pre-1913
frontiers, is:
Halacsy, E. von (1901-1908). Conspectus Florae Graecae, 3 vols, 2 supplements in
Magyar Bot. Lapok (1912) 11: 114-202. Engelmann, Lipsiae. (Parts of northern and
eastern Greece not covered; reprinted 1968 by Cramer, Lehre, F.R.G.)
Two new Floras:
Runemark, H. and Greuter, W. (in prep.). Flora of the South Aegean.
142
Greece
Strid, A. (1986- ).. A Mountain Flora of Greece. Vol. 1. Cambridge Univ. Press.
(Includes all higher plants above 1800 m, and in open habitats above 1500 m.)
See also:
Cavadas, D.S. (1957-1964). Illustrated Botanical Phytological Dictionary, 9 vols.
Athens. (Species descriptions arranged alphabetically by genus; illus; in Greek.)
Davis, P.H. (1965-1985). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, 9 vols.
Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh. Includes ferns, gymnosperms, dicotyledons; a
supplement is in prep. — East Aegean islands covered include Rhodes, Samos,
Ikaria, Chios and Lesbos.
Greuter, W. and Rechinger, K.H. (1967). Flora der Insel Kythera. Boisierra 13. 206 pp.
Phitos, D. (1967). Florula Sporadum. Phyton 12(1-4): 102-149. (Covers the Sporades.)
Rechinger, K.H. (1943). Flora Aegaea. Vienna. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math.-Naturwiss.
Denkschr. 105(1). 924 pp. Supplement (1949) in Phyton 1: 194-228. (Includes
vascular plants of the foreshores of the Aegean Sea and of the Aegean islands,
including Crete; German text; Latin keys; illus.; maps; reprinted 1973 by Koeltz,
Koenigstein-Taunus.)
Rechinger, K.H. (1961). Die Flora von Euboea. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 80(3): 294-465.
(Maps; illus.)
Strid, A. (1980). Wild Flowers of Mount Olympus. Goulandris Natural History
Museum, Kifissia. 362 pp. (Keys; descriptions; illus.)
Two Greek journals, recently founded, include many papers on the taxonomy and
floristics of Greek plants: Annales Musei Goulandris, published by the Goulandris Natural
History Museum, and Botanika Chronika, published by the Botanical Institute, University
of Patras. For details on the state of floristic research, see:
Greuter, W. (1975). Floristic studies in Greece. In Walters, S.M. (Ed.), European
Floristic and Taxonomic Studies, a Conference at Cambridge, 29 June to 2 July
1974. BSBI Conference Report No. 15. E.W. Classey, U.K. Pp. 18-37.
Greuter, W., Phitos, D. and Runemark, H. (1975). Greece and the Greek Islands. A
report on the available floristic information and floristic and phyto-taxonomic
research. In CNRS, 1975, cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 67-89. (Describes floristic
exploration and main floristic works; lists botanical institutes, herbaria and current
research projects.)
Phitos, D. (1975). Taxonomic and floristic research in Greece during the last decade,
1961-1971. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 579-597.
Rechinger, K.H. (1968). Bericht iiber die botanische Erforschung von Griechenland.
Webbia 18: 234-259. ris
Stearn, W.T. (1982). The ‘‘Flora Europaea’’ and the Greek flora. Ann. Mus.
Goulandris 5: 123-129.
Field-guides
Goulimis, C.N. (1968). Wild Flowers of Greece. Goulandris Botanical Museum,
Kifissia. 206 pp. (Colour paintings by N.A. Goulandris of about 120 Greek plants
with botanical notes by C.N. Goulimis, edited by W.T. Stearn.)
Huxley, A. and Taylor, W. (1977). Flowers of Greece and the Aegean. Chatto and
Windus, London. 185 pp. (Colour photographs.)
Phitos, D. (1965). Wild Flowers of Greece. Athens Society of the Friends of the Trees,
Athens. 64 pp. (Translated from the Greek by P. Haritonidou; describes 46 species
with colour illus.)
See also Polunin (1980), cited in Appendix 1.
143
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Information on Threatened Plants The Botanical Institute and Botanical
Museum of the University of Patras, with support from the Hellenic Society for the
Protection of Nature, intend to prepare a national Red Data Book. IUCN recently
prepared a national threatened plant list:
IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1982). The rare, threatened and endemic
plants of Greece. Ann. Mus. Goulandris 5: 69-105. (Lists over 900 taxa of
international conservation concern; introduction discusses history of data and
threats to the species listed.)
See also:
Broussalis, P. (1977). The protection of the flora in Greece and its problems. Ann.
Mus. Goulandris 3: 23-30.
Diapoulis, C. (1959). Conservation measures for the plants of the Greek flora. In
Animaux et Végétaux Rares de la Région Méditerranéenne. Proceedings of the
IUCN 7th Technical Meeting, 11-19 September 1958, Athens, vol. 5. IUCN,
Brussels. Pp. 189-191. (Lists 72 species ‘‘in danger of disappearing’’.)
Goulimis, C. (1959). Report on species of plants requiring protection in Greece and
measures for securing their protection. /oc. cit. Pp. 168-188. (Includes threatened
plant list and suggested remedies, including proposed reserve sites.)
Sfikas, G. (1979). Threatened plants of our mountains, I. Fusis (Nature - Bull.
Hellenic Soc. Protection Nature) 18: 42-44.
Snogerup, S. (1979). The Aegean endemics, distribution and present situation. I.
Preliminary list of some of the most suitable sites for conservation. Unpublished
manuscript presented to IUCN. 22 pp. (Maps showing floristically diverse areas in
the Aegean.)
Some individual case studies on endangered plants have been published in Fusis (Nature -
the Bulletin of the Hellenic Society for the Conservation of Nature), e.g. Linaria hellenica
in 12: 13-16, 34-35 (1977) and Tulipa goulimyi in 14: 5-9, 36-37 (1978), both by A.
Yannitsaros, and Cephalanthera cucullata (from Crete, see below) by J. Kalopissis in 18:
26-30, 46 (1979).
Greece is included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983,
cited in Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work, for all of Greece:
endemic taxa - Ex:5, E:26, V:36, R:359, 1:40, K:72, nt:225; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - V:10, R:54, 1:5 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which included data sheets on 33 plants Endangered in Greece.
Laws Protecting Plants Presidential Decree No. 67, No. 23A (1980), on the
‘*Protection of natural vegetation and wildlife and the establishment of the procedure, co-
ordination and control of the research on them’’, gives protection to over 700 endemic and
non-endemic taxa, from ‘‘collecting, transplanting, uprooting, cutting, transporting,
selling or exporting’’. These restrictions refer to all parts of the plant.
Voluntary Organizations
Ellenikos Oreibatikos Syndesmos (Hellenic Alpine Club), Pheidiou 18 (Athens branch),
Athens.
Friends of the Trees, 22 Anagnostopoulou Str., 106 73 Athens.
Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, 24 Nikis Street, 105 58 Athens.
144
Greece
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Garden of Julia and Alexander Diomides, 405 Iera Street, Dafni, Athens.
University of Athens Botanical Garden, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 621.
Useful Addresses
Goulandris Botanical Museum, Levidou 13, Kifissia, Athens.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Wildlife Management Department,
Ministry of Agriculture, Hippokratous 3/5, Athens.
Additional References
Antipas, B. and Miiller, G. (1974). Conservation in Greece. Problems and
achievements. Nature in Focus 19: 15, 18-21.
Dafis, S. and Landolt, E. (Eds) (1971, 1976). Zur Vegetation und Flora von
Griechenland, Ergebnisse der 15. Internationalen Pflanzengeographischen Exkursion
(IPE) durch Griechenland, 2 vols. Veréff. Geobot. Inst. ETH Stiftung Riibel,
Ziirich. (Includes a bibliography on Greek floristic work.)
Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature (1979). Proceedings of a Conference on
the Protection of the Flora, Fauna and Biotopes in Greece, 11-13 October. Hellenic
Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens. 262 pp.
Rechinger, K.H. (1965). Der Endemismus in der griechischen Flora. Rev. Roum. Biol.
(Sér. Bot.) 10(1-2): 135-138.
Strid, A. and Papanicolaou, K. (1985). The Greek Mountains. In Gomez-Campo, C.
(Ed.), cited in Appendix 1.
Greece: Crete
Area 8,331 sq. km
Population 456,642 (1971 census, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics 1600-1800 native vascular plant species estimated by D.A. Webb (1978)
from Flora Europaea; 150 endemic taxa (IUCN figures), including 1 endemic genus
(Petromarula); c. 137 endemics according to C. Barclay (1984, in /itt.). Represents highest
level of endemism in the Aegean and probably for any comparable area in Europe
(Critopoulos, 1975). Areas of high endemism are the Levka Ori (White Mts), including the
Samaria Gorge, the Lassithi plateau and the coastal area of Akrotiri north of Khania.
Floristic elements: Mediterranean, alpine. —
Vegetation In the lowlands, mostly agricultural land, with extensive maquis and
garigue; on steep slopes and cliffs in the lowlands and more widely in the mountains, a
chasmophyte flora rich in endemics. In places, small scattered stands of near natural forest
survive, dominated by oaks (Quercus pubescens, Q. macrolepis) and conifers (Pinus
brutia, Cupressus sempervirens). Crete also supports one of best examples of Kermes Oak
(Q. coccifera) woodland, between 350-1000 m. Elsewhere in the Mediterranean this habitat
almost completely grazed out of existence or converted to garigue.
Checklists and Floras See under Greece. C. Barclay (1984, in litt.) is compiling a
checklist of the Cretan flora in collaboration with W. Greuter and D. Meikle. For other
floristic accounts see:
145
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Greuter, W. (1973). Additions to the flora of Crete, 1938-1972. Ann. Mus. Goulandris
1: 15-83. (Annotated list of 250 taxa new to Crete or rediscovered between 1938 and
1972.)
Greuter, W. (1974). Floristic report on the Cretan area. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(1):
131-171. (Describes the taxonomic, biosystematic, phytosociological, floristic and
phytogeographical literature and provides corrections to Flora Europaea, vols. 1 and
2; extensive bibliography.)
Greuter, W., Matthas, U. and Risse, H. (1984). Additions to the flora of Crete,
1973-1983 - I. Willdenowia 14(1): 27-36. (Pteridophytes, dicotyledons.)
Field-guides See under Greece.
Information on Threatened Plants See under Greece and:
Greuter, W. (1979). The endemic flora of Crete and the significance of its protection.
In Hellenic Society for the Protection of Nature, Proceedings of a Conference on
the Protection of the Flora, Fauna and Biotopes in Greece, 11-13 October. Hellenic
Society for the Protection of Nature, Athens. Pp. 91-97.
Laws Protecting Plants See under Greece.
Additional References
Critopoulos, P. (1975). The endemic taxa of Crete. In Jordanov, D. et al. (Eds),
Problems of Balkan Flora and Vegetation. Proceedings of the 1st International
Symposium on Balkan Flora and Vegetation, Varna, June 7-14 1973. Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Sofia. Pp. 169-177.
Gradstein, S.R. and Smittenberg, J.H. (1977). The hydrophilous vegetation of western
Crete. Vegetatio 34(2): 65-86.
Greuter, W. (1971a). L’apport de l’homme 4a la flore spontanée de la Créte. Boissiera
19: 329-337.
Greuter, W. (1971b). Betrachtungen zur Pflanzengeographie der Siidagais
(Considerations on the plant geography of the south Aegean). Opera Bot. 30: 49-64.
(English abstract.)
Greuter, W. (1975). Die Insel Kreta - eine geobotanische Skizze. In Dafis, S. and
Landolt, E. (Eds), Zur Vegetation und Flora von Griechenland, Ergebnisse der 15
Internationalen Pflanzengeographischen Exkursion (IPE) durch Griechenland,
2 vols. (Describes plant geography and phytosociology.)
Rechinger, K.H. (1943). Neue Beitrage zur Flora von Kreta. Akad. Wiss. Wien
Math.-Naturwiss., Denkschr. 105, No.2 (1). 184 pp. (Botanical report of a field
excursion by the author.)
Zaffran, J. (1976). Contributions a la Flore et a la Végétation de la Crete. 1.
Floristique. Marseilles.
Zohary, M and Orshan, G. (1965). An outline of the geobotany of Crete. Israel J. Bot.
14 (supplement). 49 pp. (Summary of vegetation; map; illus.)
146
Greenland
(Part of Denmark)
Area 2,175,600 sq. km
Population 54,000
Floristics 497 species of vascular plants; 15 endemic species (Bécher ef al., 1978).
Elements: Arctic/alpine, Boreal.
Vegetation Much of Greenland is covered in permanent ice. In the southern
coastal areas, sub-Arctic dwarf-shrub heaths dominated by Empetrum hermaphroditum;
in the interior of the ice-free coastal strip, similar heaths are dominated by Betula nana. In
the north, high Arctic Cassiope heaths in the coastal part, with very open Dryas
communities further inland.
More than 700,000 sq. km protected by the North East Greenland National Park, the
world’s largest protected area.
Checklists and Floras
Bocher, T.W., Fredskild, B., Holmen, K. and Jakobsen, K. (1978). Grenlands Flora,
3rd Ed. Haase, Kgbenhavn. 326 pp. (Translated by T.T. Elkington and M.C. Lewis
from Danish 2nd Ed.; illus.)
Danish Arctic Station (1968). Check-list of the Vascular Plants of Greenland.
Godhavn, Disko. 39 pp. (Compiled from ‘The Flora of Greenland’.)
Jorgensen, C.A., Sorensen, T. and Westergaard, M. (1958). The Flowering Plants of
Greenland: a Taxonomical and Cytological Survey. Munksgaard. 172 pp.
For a plant atlas see Hultén (1971), cited in Appendix 1.
Field-guides
Feilberg, J., Fredskild, B. and Holt, S. (1984). Grenlands Blomster (Flowers of
Greenland). Regnbuen, Denmark. 96 pp. (Illus.)
Foersom, T., Kapel, F.O. and Svarre, O. (1982). Nunatta Naasui, Gronlands Flora,
3rd Ed. Haasa, Kgbenhavn. 326 pp. (Illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants No publications known. IUCN statistics:
endemic taxa — R:3, I:1, nt:3, no data for remainder.
Laws Protecting Plants Although there is no legislation for the protection of
plant species in Greenland, a list of species for protection has been proposed for inclusion
in the 1980 Act on the Protection of Nature in Greenland.
Additional References
Bocher, T.W., Holmen, K. and Jakobsen, K. (1959). A synoptical study of the
Greenland flora. Med. Grenland 163(1). 32 pp.
Grenada
Grenada, in the Windward chain of the Lesser Antilles, 131 km north of Trinidad, is about
33.8 km long and 19.3 km broad. Mountains reach 839 m. There is no coastal plain. The
state of Grenada also includes some of the 600 small islands of the Grenadines to the
147
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
north, in particular Carriacou (the largest), St Andrew, St David, St John, St Mark and
St Patrick.
Area 345 sq. km (including the Grenadan Grenadines)
Population 112,000
Floristics None.
Vegetation Palm break on steep slopes of Mt St Catherine in the central massif;
elfin woodland on summits; remnants of high forest on SW ridge of Mt Sinai; secondary
cut-over rain forest on the lower hills; dry scrub woodland along the extreme south coast;
rough grazing land with thorn bush over most of the Point Saline peninsula. The forests
have been profoundly modified by timber felling in the 19th Century (Beard, 1949, cited
in Appendix 1.) 11.8% forested according to FAO (1974, cited in Appendix 1).
On the Grenadines predominantly deciduous and semi-deciduous forests; dry evergreen
littoral stunted vegetation on windward slopes (Howard, 1952).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and
Windward Islands (only monocotyledons and ferns published so far, Howard, 1974- ,
cited in Appendix 1) and by the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica (cited
in Appendix 1). See also:
Beard, J.S. (1944). Provisional list of trees and shrubs of the Lesser Antilles.
Caribbean Forester 5(2): 48-67. (428 species assigned in a table to individual islands
separating Grenada from the Grenadines.)
Stehlé, H. and Stehlé, M. (1947). Liste complémentaire des arbres et arbustes des
petites Antilles. Caribbean Forester 8: 91-123. (A further 328 species to Beard, 1944,
in similar format.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Gardens, Department of Agriculture, St George’s.
Additional References
Groome, J.R. (1970). A Natural History of the Island of Grenada, West Indies.
Caribbean Printers Limited, O’Meara Rd., Arima, Trinidad. 115 pp. (About 40
pages deal with plants to which there is an index of common names annotated with
cross-references and uses. The catalogue of plants is alphabetical by families.)
Howard, R.A. (1952). The vegetation of the Grenadines, Windward Islands, British
West Indies. Contr. Gray Herb. Harv. Univ. 174: 1-129, 29 plates.
Guadeloupe and Martinique
Guadeloupe in the Leeward islands of the West Indies consists of two islands
joined by a mangrove swamp: Grande Terre, limestone, flat and intensively cultivated;
and Basse Terre, volcanic and mountainous - the Soufriére volcano at 1464 m is the
highest peak in the Lesser Antilles. Just south and east of Guadeloupe are the limestone
islets of La Désirade and Marie Galante (the largest at c. 160 sq. km) and the volcanic Iles
des Saintes.
148
Guadeloupe and Martinique
Martinique in the Windward islands is 200 km south of Guadeloupe; Dominica is
between them. It is much cultivated with three regions: low hills in the south, a central
massif, and the active volcano of Mt Pelée in the north.
Guadeloupe and Martinique are French overseas départements. The small island of St
Barthélémy, and part of neighbouring St Martin, at the north end of the Leeward Islands,
are dependencies of Guadeloupe. (For the other part of St Martin see Netherlands
Antilles.) Their flora is small; see Questel (1941) and the account for Antigua and
Barbuda.
Area Guadeloupe: 1779 sq. km; Martinique: 1079 sq. km
Population Guadeloupe: 319,000; Martinique: 312,000
Floristics c. 2800 species of gymnosperms and flowering plants (c. 1700
indigenous and 1100 introduced) (Fournet, 1978). Early figures for endemism (e.g. 5% for
Guadeloupe and 4% for Martinique in Stehlé and Quentin, 1937) are now known to be too
high, as many of the species have been found on neighbouring islands. Up-to-date figures
not available.
Vegetation
Guadeloupe On Grand Terre little forest remains, the only natural growth being
man-induced scrub woodland. Basse Terre has untouched rain forest and lower montane
rain forest. At the junction of the islands are large expanses of mangrove and Pterocarpus
swamp. 34.8% forest cover according to FAO (1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Martinique No natural rain forest remains. In the centre and at low elevations
there is secondary forest, at higher elevations montane thicket, palm brake and elfin
woodland. 25.5% forest cover according to FAO (1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and
Windward Islands (only monocotyledons and ferns published so far, Howard, 1974- ,
cited in Appendix 1) and by the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica (cited
in Appendix 1). Island floras are:
Fournet, J. (1978). Flore Illustrée des Phanérogames de Guadeloupe et de Martinique.
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Paris. 1654 pp.
Questel, A. (1951). 1 - La Flore de la Guadeloupe et Dépendances (Antilles
Frangaises). Géographie Générale de la Guadeloupe et Dépendances (Antilles
Francaises). L. le Charles, Paris. 327 pp. (With description of the vegetation, illus.
and maps.) wit
Stehlé, H. and M. and Quentin, L. (1935-1949). Flore de la Guadeloupe et
Dépendances et de la Martinique. Several vols. Catholic Press, Basse-Terre.
See also:
Beard, J.S. (1944). Provisional list of trees and shrubs of the Lesser Antilles.
Caribbean Forester 5(2): 48-67. (428 species assigned in a table to individual
islands.)
Stehlé, H. and Stehlé, M. (1947). Liste complémentaire des arbres et arbustes des
petites Antilles. Caribbean Forester 8: 91-123. (A further 328 species to Beard, 1944,
in similar format.)
For St Barthélémy, see:
149
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Monachino, J. (1940-41). A check-list of the spermatophytes of St. Bartholomew: part
i-ii. Caribbean Forester 2: 24-66.
Questel, A. (1941). La Flore de Saint-Barthélemy (Antilles Frangaises) et son Origine.
Imprimerie Catholique, Basse-Terre. 224 pp. (In French, also an English version.)
Field-guides
Chauvin, G. (1977, 1978). Etude illustrée des familles de plantes a fleurs de la
Martinique. Les cahiers documentaires éducation et enseignement, no. 16: les
Gamopétales and no. 18: les Dialypétales. C.D.D.P. Fort-de-France.
Fournet, J. (1976). Fleurs et plantes des Antilles. Cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants
Sastre, C. (1978). Plantes menacées de Guadeloupe et de Martinique. 1. Espéces
altitudinales. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 3e sér. no. 519, Ecologie générale
42: 65-93. (Description of vegetation, sheets on 13 rare and threatened species with
illustrations and habitat photographs.)
Sastre, C. and Mestoret, L. (1978). Plantes rares ou menacées de Martinique. Le
courrier du parc naturel régional de la Martinique no. 2: 20-22.
C. Sastre has also written popular papers on threatened plants of Guadeloupe and
Martinique, e.g. in L’Orchidophile 13(52): 83-90 (1982) and in an unnumbered issue of
Panda, the magazine of WWF-France (pp. 6-7).
The IUCN Plant Red Data Book has three data sheets for Guadeloupe and Martinique.
Voluntary Organizations
Association des Amis du Parc Naturel de la Guadeloupe et de l’environnement,
Préfecture de la Guadeloupe, Basse-Terre.
Useful Addresses
Délégation Régionale a l’Architecture et a |’environnement (Guadeloupe, Guyane,
Martinique), B.P. 1002, 97178 Pointe-a-Pitre Cedex.
Office National des Foréts, Jardin des plantes, 97100 Basse-Terre.
Additional References
Fiard, J.P., Association des Amis du Parc Naturel Régional (1979). La forét
martiniquaise: présentation et propositions de mesures de protection. Fort de
France, Parc Naturel Régional Ex-Caserne Bouille. 65 pp. (Illus., maps.)
Portecop, J. (1979). Phytogéographie, cartographie écologique et aménagement dans
une ile tropicale: le cas de la Martinique. Doc. Cart. Ecol. Univ. Grenoble 21: 1-78.
(With map, 1:75,000.)
Sastre, C. (1979). Considérations phytogéographiques sur les sommets volcaniques
Antillais. C.R. Soc. Biogéogr. 484: 127-135.
Stehlé, H. (1980). Modifications écologiques récentes dans la végétation des Antilles
francaises et leurs causes essentielles (42e contribution). Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr., 127,
Lettres Bot. 3: 275-287.
150
Guam
Guam (13°20’N, 144°45’E) is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands, and is
located in the west Pacific Ocean, c. 2030 km east of the Philippines. It is an
unincorporated territory of the United States. Most of the northern part is a raised
limestone plateau 152 m high, separated from the volcanic south, which reaches 407 m, by
a narrow neck of land 8 km wide.
Area 450 sq. km
Population 119,000
Floristics 931 vascular plant species of which c. 330 are native and 20 doubtfully
native (Stone, 1970). 69 vascular species occurring on Guam are endemic to the Marianas
Group. Indomalaysian-Pacific elements account for over a third of the total vascular
flora.
Vegetation Rain forest with Artocarpus, Elaeocarpus, Pandanus, Ficus and
Guamia originally covered most of the island; much has been logged and cleared for
coconut plantations; mixed forests on old volcanic soils completely destroyed (Fosberg,
1973, cited in Appendix 1). Ravine forests occur along river valleys and on some volcanic
and limestone hill slopes; small areas of poorly developed mangroves.
Checklists and Floras
Stone, B.C. (1970). The Flora of Guam. Micronesica 6. 659 pp. (Keys, descriptions;
notes on distributions; introductory chapters on floristics, vegetation, forests and
other plant resources.)
Wagner, W.H. and Grether, D.F. (1948). Pteridophytes of Guam. Occ. Papers Bernice
P. Bishop Mus. 19(2): 25-99.
Guam is included in Flora Micronesica (Kanehira, 1933), the regional checklists of
Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver (1979, 1982), and will also be covered by the Flora of
Micronesia (1975- ), all of which are cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants There are about 20 vascular plant taxa,
endemic to Guam and the Marianas which are ‘endangered’; a further 30 taxa, not
confined to Guam or the Marianas are ‘endangered’ on Guam (Moore, 1980). Heritiera
longipetiolata and Serianthes nelsonii are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book
(1978). See also:
Moore, P.H. (1980). Notes on the endangered-species of Guam. Notes from Waimea
Arboretum 7(1): 14-17. (Notes on 3 ‘endangered’ endemic taxa; checklist by C.
Daguio of 58 mostly non-endemic taxa, in cultivation at Waimea.)
Moore, P., Raulerson, L., Chernin, M. and McMakin, P. (1977). Inventory and
mapping of wetland vegetation in Guam, Tinian and Saipan, Mariana Islands.
Mimeo. Univ. of Guam. (Lists 5 non-endemics threatened on Guam.)
Additional References
Lee, M.A.B. (1974). Distribution of native and invader plant species of the island of
Guam. Biotropica 6(3): 158-164.
PS
Guatemala
Area 108,888 sq. km
Population 8,165,000
Floristics An estimated 8000 species of vascular plants (Gentry, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1); 1171 endemic species (IUCN figures); over 550 orchids (Lizama, 1981);
according to D’Arcy (1977), 70% of the high mountain vascular flora is endemic.
Vegetation Predominantly tropical broadleaved moist forests (83% of forest
cover), mostly in the Department of Petén in the northeast; mangroves on tidal flow areas
on the Pacific coast; coniferous montane forests in the west, restricted to the highlands,
extending c. 10,000 sq. km (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Estimated rate of
deforestation 900 sq. km/year out of a total area of 49,020 sq. km; figures for broadleaved
closed forest are 720 and 37,850 sq. km respectively (Nations and Komer, 1984, from
FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Guatemala is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project,
described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica, also in Appendix 1. The country Flora is:
Standley, P.C., Steyermark, J.A. and Williams, L.O. (1946-1977). Flora of Guatemala.
Fieldiana, Bot. 24 (1-13). (Complete except for orchids and ferns, covered
separately, see below.)
Also relevant:
Ames, O. and Correll, D.S. (1952-53). Orchids of Guatemala. Fieldiana, Bot. 26(1-2).
Correll, D.S. (1965). Supplement to the orchids of Guatemala and British Honduras.
Fieldiana, Bot. 31(7): 177-221.
Record, S.J. and Kuylen, H. (1926). Trees of the Lower Rio Motagua Valley,
Guatemala. Trop. Woods 7: 10-29.
Stolze, R.S. (1976, 1981, 1983). Ferns and fern allies of Guatemala. Fieldiana, Bot. 39:
1-130; Fieldiana, Bot., New Series 6: 1-522 (Part II: Polypodiaceae); 12: 1-91 (Part
III: Marsileaceae, Salviniaceae and the fern allies).
Information on Threatened Plants 24 species are listed as threatened in
Organizacién de los Estados Americanos (1967), cited in Appendix 1. 24 species, mostly
different ones, are listed in the Annex to the Convention on Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (1940). 5 species are listed as threatened
in Nations and Komer (1984). 93 threatened species, most not threatened on a world scale,
are covered in a list by the Instituto Nacional Forestal (INAFOR) - this is:
Rodas Zamora, J. and Aguilar Cumes, J. (1980). Lista de algunas especies vegetales en
via en extincién. INAFOR, Guatemala City. (Unpublished.)
IUCN is preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The list of
rare, threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based
upon this work: endemic taxa — E:14, V:37, R:90, 1:35, K:974, nt:21; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - E:4, V:25, R:38, I:11 (world categories).
Threatened plants are mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104), J.T. Mickel on rare
152
Guatemala
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore on endangerment in palms (pp.
267-282), P. Ravenna on rare and threatened bulbs (pp. 257-266).
Laws Protecting Plants Government Decree 13-79, Emergency Law, National
Rainforest Campaign, includes provisions for re-afforestation and for the prevention of
felling of trees to collect seeds, especially of Pimenta diaica. Governmental law of 9
August 1946 prohibits the collection and export of the orchid and national flower, Lycaste
virginalis var. alba; collection may only be authorized by the Ministerio de Agricultura.
Governmental Resolution of 29 August 1950 prohibits the use of the bark of Pinus
ayacahuite for tanning, and Resolution of 18 August 1958 prohibits the export of fresh
roots and seeds of 6 Dioscorea species and one Agave species (J.M. Aguilar Cumes, in litt.,
1984). The U.S. Government has determined Abies guatemalensis (El Salvador,
Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico) as ‘Threatened’ under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacién Guatemalteca de Historia Natural (AGHN), c/o Jardin Botanico, Avenida
de la Reforma 0-43, Zona 10, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico, Avenida de la Reforma 0-43, Zona 10, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Useful Addresses
Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON), Avenida de la Reforma 0-43, Zona
10, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Empresa Nacional de Fomento y Desarrollo Econémico del Petén (FYDEP), Santa
Elena, Petén.
Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Calle Mariscal Cruz
1-56, Zona 10, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Instituto de Antropologia e Historia y Historia Natural (IDAEH), 6a Calle 7-30, Zona
13, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Instituto Nacional Forestal (INAFOR), 5a Avenida 12-31, Zona 9, Edificio ‘‘El
Cortez’’, Ciudad de Guatemala.
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Apdo Postal 987, Ciudad de Guatemala.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Instituto Nacional Forestal (INAFOR),
Edificio Galerias Espafia, 6° Nivel, 7a Avenida 11-63, Zona 9, Ciudad de
Guatemala.
Additional References
D’Arcy, W.G. (1977). Endangered landscapes in Panama and Central America: the
threat to plant species. In Prance, G.T. and-Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 89-104.
Holdridge, L.R., Lamb, F.B. and Mason, B. (1950). Los Bosques de Guatemala.
Turrialba, Costa Rica. Instituto Interamericana de Ciencias Agricolas. 174 pp.
INAFOR (1981). Estudio sobre Exportaciénes de Fauna y Flora Silvestre de Guatemala
de Enero/78 a Diciembre/80. Departamento de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre,
Instituto Nacional Forestal. 24 pp.
Lizama, C. (1981). Orchids of Guatemala. In Stewart, J. and van der Merwe, C.N.
(Eds), Proceedings of the 10th World Orchid Conference. Durban, South Africa.
Pp. 109-110.
Lundell, C.L. (1937). The vegetation of Petén. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.
244 pp. (Publication No. 478.)
Nations, J.D. and Komer, D.I. (1984). Conservation in Guatemala: Final report,
presented to WWF-US. Center for Human Ecology, Box 5210, Austin, Texas 78763,
153
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
U.S.A. Mimeo. 170 pp. (From WWF Project US-269, Development of a
conservation program for Guatemala; extensive report listing conservation
organizations, individuals and other useful contacts in Guatemala.)
Veblen, T.T. (1976). The urgent need for forest conservation in highland Guatemala.
Biol. Conserv. 9: 141-154.
Guinea
Area 245,855 sq. km
Population 5,301,000
Floristics Size of flora unknown; 88 endemics (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix
1), but see below. Mt Nimba, shared with Liberia and Ivory Coast, has over 2000 species.
Floristic affinities range from Sudanian in the extreme north-east to Guinea-Congolian in
the south and south-west. Afromontane elements occur on the Fouta Djallon and Mt
Nimba which are important centres of endemism. The forests also have numerous
endemics.
Vegetation Over most of the country a mosaic of patches of lowland rain forest
interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivated land; extensive areas of forest still
survive near the borders with Liberia and Ivory Coast. Considerable areas of mangrove
along coast. Sudanian woodland occurs in north-eastern sector. Also, transitional rain
forest (between lowland and montane) on Mt Nimba and the Fouta Djallon. Estimated
rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 360 sq. km/annum out of 20,500 sq.
km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Guinea is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa.
The Guinean portion of Mt Nimba is included in Flore Descriptive des Monts Nimba. Both
are cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 99 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
including V:10, R:27, nt:10.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Direction Générale des Eaux, Foréts et Chasses,
Secrétariat d’Etat aux Eaux et Foréts, B.P. 624, Conakry.
Additional References
Adam, J.G. (1958). Eléments pour |’Etude de la Végétation des Hauts Plateaux du
Fouta Djalon (Secteur des Timbis), Guinée Francaise. 1. La Flore et ses
Groupements. Gouvernement Général de l’AOF, Bureau des Sols, Dakar. 80 pp.
(With coloured vegetation map 1:50,000.)
Adam, J.-G. (1970). Etat actuel de la végétation des monts Nimba au Libéria et en
Guinée. Adansonia, Sér. 2, 10: 193-211. (With 10 black and white photographs.)
Lamotte, M. (1983). The undermining of Mount Nimba. Ambio 12(3-4): 174-179.
(Photographs, maps.)
154
Guinea
Pobéguin, H. (1906). Essai sur la Flore de la Guinée Francaise. Challamel, Paris.
392 pp. (Numerous black and white photographs.)
Schnell, R. (1968). Guinée. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 69-72.
Guinea-Bissau
Area 36,125 sq. km
Population 875,000
Floristics c. 1000 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1). No
endemics given in Brenan (1978, cited in Appendix 1), but IUCN has records of 12 species
and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; five of these are undescribed species.
Flora with Guinea-Congolian and Sudanian affinities.
Vegetation Large areas of mangrove around coast and offshore islands. Inland,
original vegetation lowland rain forest, but much now destroyed and replaced by
cultivation and secondary grassland. Estimated rate of deforestation for closed
broadleaved forest 170 sq. km/annum out of 6600 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Guinea-Bissau is included in the Flora of West Tropical
Africa, cited in Appendix 1.
D’Orey, J. and Liberato, M.C. (1972- ). Flora da Guiné Portuguesa. Ministério do
Ultramar, Lisboa. (5 fascicles so far, covering most of Leguminosae plus two other
smaller families. Descriptive keys, distributions, etc.)
Pereira de Sousa, E. (1946-1963). Contribuigées para o Conhecimento da Flora da
Guiné Portuguesa. Vols 1-8 published by Ministério das Colonias, Lisboa in Anais
Junta Invest. Colon., and Anais Junta Invest. Ultram.; vols 9-10 by Junta de
Investigacées do Ultramar, Lisboa. (Annotated checklist. Frodin gives more
publication details.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants. No categories assigned to the 12 taxa_believed to be endemic.
Additional References
Espirito Santo, J. do (1949). Contribicéo para o conhecimento fitogeografico da Guiné
portuguesa. Bol. Cult. Guiné Portug. 4(13): 95-129.
Malato-Beliz, J. (1963). Aspectos da investigacao geobotanica na Guiné Portuguesa.
Estud. Agron. 4(1): 1-20.
Malato-Beliz, J. and Alves Pereira, J. (1965). Constituicao e ecologia das pastagens
naturais da Guiné Portuguesa. Garcia de Orta 13: 1-7. (With 6 black and white
photographs.)
155
Guyana
Area 214,970 sq. km
Population 936,000
Floristics No figures available for number of species; likely to be higher than
French Guiana (estimated at 6000-8000 species), because of wider range of vegetation.
J.C. Lindeman (1984, pers. comm.), however, estimates 8000 species of vascular plants for
all 3 Guianas, implying the total for Guyana is rather lower. Floristic affinities with
neighbouring countries, in particular the dry savanna with that of Brazil and the rain
forests with Amazonia and Venezuela through the Guayana Highland sandstone
mountains.
Vegetation On the coast mangrove and swamp forests, with pockets of seasonal
evergreen forests, now largely destroyed. Most of the population and cultivated land are
on the coast. In the interior, equatorial rain forests, lowland and submontane, covering
85% of the country and forming 2.9% of the Amazon forest. From the Demerara River
along the coast to the Surinam border wet savanna; in the south on and around the
Kanuku Mts dry (Rupununi) savanna. In the west are the spectacular Pakaraima Mts,
reaching 2810 m on Mt Roraima and forming part of the Guayana Highland which covers
much of southern Venezuela; sandstone capped by granite, with elfin forest, bog and
swamp on the top, mainly forest but some grassland lower down; very rich in endemics.
According to FAO/UNEP (1981), estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved
forest 25 sq. km/annum out of 184,750 sq. km; according to Myers (1980, cited in
Appendix 1), montane rain forest covers 47,500 sq. km, lowland evergreen rain forest
134,000 sq. km, swamp and marsh forest 5300 sq. km: ‘‘there seems little prospect that
Guyana’s primary forests will be much modified within the foreseeable future’’.
Checklists and Floras Guyana is covered by the family and generic monographs
of Flora Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). Country accounts are:
Fanshawe, D.B. (1949). Check-list of the indigenous woody plants of British Guiana.
Forestry Bulletin No. 3 (New Series), Forest Dept, British Guiana. 244 pp.
Unpublished typescript, copy at Kew.
Graham, E.H. (1934). Flora of the Kartabo Region, British Guiana. Ann. Carnegie
Mus. 22: 17-292.
Maguire, B. et al. (1953- ). The botany of the Guayana Highland. Mem. New York
Bot. Gard. 12 parts, between vols. 8 and 38. Various family treatments resulting
from field activities begun in 1944. Parts 13 and 14 (in prep.) will conclude the
systematic treatment of the flora of the Roraima Formation in Guyana; other
reports will be issued as separate papers.
A 30-year project to prepare the Flora of the Guianas is being coordinated by the Institute
of Systematic Botany, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands, and the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D.C., in collaboration with Office de la Recherche Scientifique
et Technique Outre-Mer, Cayenne, French Guiana, and other leading botanical
institutions. Part 1 (Cannaceae, Musaceae and Zingiberaceae by P.J.M. Maas) is in press.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book.
Threatened plants are mentioned in:
156
Guyana
Mickel, J.T. (1977). Rare and endangered pteridophytes in the New World and their
prospects for the future. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 323-330.
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Gardens, Guyana Forestry Commission, Water Street, Georgetown.
Botanical Gardens, Ministry of Agriculture, Turkeyen, Greater Georgetown.
Useful Addresses
Institute of Sytematic Botany, University of Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 1, P.O. Box
80102, 3508 TC Utrecht, Netherlands.
National Science Research Council, University Campus, Turkeyen, Greater
Georgetown.
CITES Management Authority: The Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture,
P.O. Box 1001, Georgetown.
CITES Scientific Authority: The National Science Research Council, 44 Pere Street,
Kitty.
Additional References
Dalfelt, A. (1978). Nature Conservation Survey of the Republic of Guyana. IUCN,
Switzerland. 55 pp.
Fanshawe, D.B. (1952). The Vegetation of British Guiana: A Preliminary Review.
Institute Paper No. 29, Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford. 95 pp.
Maguire, B. (1970). On the flora of the Guayana Highland. Biotropica 2(2): 85-100.
Haiti
The western third of the island of Hispaniola, bordered by the Dominican Republic; three
quarters mountainous.
Area 27,749 sq. km
Population 6,419,000
Floristics No figures for Haiti; Hispaniola has an estimated 5000 species: 7
gymnosperms, 1087 monocotyledons and 3900 dicotyledons; with 1800 endemic species
(Liogier, 1984).
Vegetation Vegetation greatly modified; what remains is similar to that of the
neighbouring Dominican Republic; only a few pine forests survive at the higher altitudes
and also small areas of mahogany, rosewood and cedar; alpine vegetation above 1463 m;
coastal mangrove; estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 12 sq.
km/annum, out of a total of 360 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981); earlier FAO figures estimate
only 1.8% forested (FAO, 1974, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). For Haiti see:
Barker, H.D. and Dardeau, W.S. (1930). Flore d’Haiti. Service technique de la
Département de L’ Agriculture et L’Enseignment professionel. Port-au-Prince.
456 pp. (Angiosperms only; keys to genera; species mostly listed.)
The following works refer to Hispaniola:
157
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Liogier, A.H. (1982, 1983). La Flora de la Espafiola. 2 vols published, the third in
press. San Pedro de Macoris. 317 pp., 420 pp., illus.
Moscoso, R.M. (1943). Catalogus Florae Domingensis. New York. 732 pp. (In Spanish;
checklist of gymnosperms and flowering plants. Includes reports from Haiti as well
as Dominican Republic.)
Also relevant:
Jiménez, J. de J. (1963-1967). Suplemento no. 1 al Catalogus Florae Domingensis del
Prof. Rafael M. Moscoso. Archiv. Bot. Biogeogr. Ital. 39: 81-132; 40: 54-149; 41:
47-87; 42: 46-97 and 107-129; 43: 1-18.
Liogier, A.H. (1976). Novitates Antillanae. VII. Plantas nuevas de la Espajfiola.
Moscosoa 1(1): 16-49.
Urban, I. (1922-1932). Plantae Haitienses novae vel rariores a cl Er. L. Ekman 1917
lectae. Arkiv for Botanik 17(7)-24A(4), series of ten papers. Uppsala. (In German.)
Urban, I. (1920, 1921). Flora domingensis. Symbolae Antillanae 8(1): 1-480; 8(2):
481-860.
The botanical journal Moscosoa includes reports of new taxa, of new records and other
papers on the flora and vegetation of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. It is published by
the Jardin Botanico Nacional ‘Dr Rafael M. Moscoso’, Apdo 21-9, Santo Domingo.
Information on Threatened Plants No national list or report. Threatened plant
conservation is discussed in:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Conservation and the endangered species of plants in the
Caribbean islands. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 105-114.
Additional References
Ekman, E.L. (1926). Botanizing in Haiti. U.S. Naval Med. Bull. 24: 483-497. Ekman
also wrote accounts (in English) of the Hispaniola islands, Tortue, Navassa and
Gonave. See Arkiv fér Botanik 22A(9): 1-61; 22A(16): 1-12 (both in 1929) and Ark.
Bot. 23A(6): 1-73 (1930).
Holdridge, D.R. (1945). A brief sketch of the Flora of Hispaniola. In Verdoorn F.
(Ed.), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 76-78.
Liogier, A.H. (1974). Diccionario botanico de nombres vulgares de la Espafiola. Jardin
Botanico Dr R. Moscoso, Santo Domingo. 813 pp.
Liogier, A. (1984). La Flora de la Espafiola: sus principales carateristicas. 2da Joranda
Cientifica Academia de Ciencias de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo.
Zanoni, T.A., Long, C.R. and Mckiernan, G. (1984). Bibliografia de la flora y de la
vegetacion de la Isla Espafiola. Moscosoa 3: 1-61. (An extensive annotated
bibliography of the flora and the vegetation of Hispaniola.)
Hawaii
A group of volcanic islands in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii became the 50th State of
the United States in 1959.
Area 16,641 sq. km
158
Hawaii
Population 965,000 (1980 census, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics About 950 vascular plant species (P.H. Raven, 1986, pers. comm.,
quoting Wagner, Herbst and Sohmer, in prep.), most endemic.
Vegetation Coastal forest of Scaevola and Pandanus, with Santalum between
600-800 m; lowland dry forest with Myoporum, almost entirely cleared for cultivation,
grazing and settlements; upper dry forest, mainly open Koa (Acacia koa) woodland, on
lower mountain slopes and occasionally on mountain ridges; Ohia (Metrosideros) rain
forest — the richest community - in highland areas with more than 1750 mm annual rainfall
(Carlquist, 1980). All the larger volcanic islands, except Kahoolawe and Niihau, retain
some natural forests in uplands; Hawaii and Maui islands, in particular, have large areas
of intact rain forest. Small patches of forest (‘kipukas’) have been isolated by lava flows
and contain many endemics. 2 National Parks and several other protected areas have been
established, mostly in uplands.
Checklists and Floras A new Flora, entitled Manual of the Flowering Plants of
Hawai’i, is being prepared by W.L. Wagner, D.R. Herbst and S.H. Sohmer at the Bishop
Museum, Honolulu. It will include all known native and naturalized alien species, with
keys and descriptions of families, genera and species; introductory chapters to cover
vegetation. Expected publication date - 1988. Published works are:
Degener, O. and I. (1932- ). Flora Hawaiiensis or. The New Illustrated Flora of the
Hawaiian Islands. J. Pan-Pacific Research Institute, Honolulu. (7 loose-leaf
fascicles, each dealing with c. 100 taxa.)
Hillebrand, W.F. (1888). Flora of the Hawaiian Islands. Heidelberg. 673 pp.
(According to Frodin, treats 999 species. Reprinted 1965, by Hafner, New York.)
Rock, J.F. (1913). The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu. 518 pp.
(Revised by D.R. Herbst, 1974; Tuttle, Rutland.)
St John, H. (1973). List and Summary of the Flowering Plants in the Hawaiian
Islands. Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii. 519 pp. (Comprehensive
checklist with distributions.)
Field-guides The following guides contain short descriptive accounts and colour
photographs of c. 70 taxa, including introductions:
Lamoureux, C.H. (1976). Trailside Plants of Hawaii’s National Parks. Hawaii Natural
History Assoc. and U.S. National Parks Service, Hawaii. 78 pp.
Merlin, M.D. (1976). Hawaiian Forest Plants: A Hiker’s Guide. Oriental Publ. Co.,
Honolulu. 68 pp.
Merlin, M.D. (1977). Hawaiian Coastal Plants and Scenic Shorelines. Oriental Publ.
Co., Honolulu. 68 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants Hawaii is covered in the Federal U.S. lists
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980, 1983, cited under United States); Ayensu and
DeFilipps (1978) list 270 ‘Extinct’, 646 ‘Endangered’ and 197 ‘Threatened’ taxa, most of
which are endemic. According to Wagner, Herbst and Sohmer (in prep.), about 10% of
the native flora is presumed extinct and about 40% threatened (P.H. Raven, 1986, in
litt.). Publications specifically on Hawaiian threatened plants are:
Fosberg, F.R. and Herbst, D. (1975). Rare and endangered species of Hawaiian
vascular plants. Allertonia 1(1). 72 pp. (Estimates 70% of flora is threatened; lists
1186 taxa, of which 273 ‘extinct’, 800 ‘endangered’.)
159
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Kimura, B.Y. and Nagata, K.M. (1980). Hawaii’s Vanishing Flora. Oriental Publ. Co.,
Honolulu. 88 pp.
St John, H. and Corn, C.A. (1981). Rare Endemic Plants of the Hawaiian Islands,
Book 1. Dept of Land and Natural Resources, Div. of Forestry and Wildlife,
Honolulu. (68 threatened taxa giving status and threats.)
5 species are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics:
endemic taxa - Ex:62, E:830, V:45, R:66; I:784, K:28. This is the highest recorded number
of Extinct and Endangered taxa for any country in the world, let alone an island group the
size of Hawaii, but has not yet been brought into line with the new Flora.
Laws Protecting Plants See under United States.
Voluntary Organizations See under United States. The Nature Conservancy
(TNC) has a particularly active programme in Hawaii. Local address:
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, 1026 Nuuanu Avenue, Suite 201, Honolulu,
Hawaii 96817.
Botanic Gardens The principal gardens are:
Foster Botanic Garden, 50 N. Vineyard Boulevard, Honolulu, Hawaii 96817.
Harold L. Lyon Arboretum, University of Hawaii, 3860 Manoa Road, Honolulu,
Hawaii 96822.
Pacific Tropical Botanic Garden, P.O. Box 340, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii 96765.
Waimea Arboretum and Botanical Garden, Park Office, 59-864 Kamehameha
Highway, Haleiwa, Oahu, Hawaii 96712.
A Checklist of Hawaiian Endemic, Indigenous, Food Plants and Polynesian Introductions
in Cultivation in Hawaii was compiled in 1983 at the Waimea Arboretum and Botanical
Garden for the Council of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, and published by the Waimea
Arboretum Foundation. It lists Hawaiian plants in cultivation in Hawaiian collections. It
adds the following gardens to those listed above:
Amy Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden, Hawaii.
Kapalua Botanic Garden, Maui.
Keanae Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii.
Koko Crater Botanic Garden, Oahu.
Lo’i Botanic Garden, Oahu.
Maui Zoo and Botanical Garden, Maui, Hawaii.
Wahiawa Botanic Garden, Oahu.
Waikamoi Arboretum, Maui, Hawaii.
Index of threatened plants in cultivation:
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1985). The Botanic
Gardens List of Rare and Threatened Plants of the Hawaiian Islands. Botanic
Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body, Report No. 14. IUCN, Kew. 21 pp.
(Lists 274 rare and threatened endemic taxa, reported in cultivation, with gardens
listed for each.)
Useful Addresses
Endangered Species Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard,
P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.
Hawaii State Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1179 Punchbowl Street, Honolulu
96813.
160
Hawaii
Additional References
Carlquist, S. (1965), cited in Appendix 1. (Origin, evolution and adaptations of plants
and animals.)
Carlquist, S. (1974), cited in Appendix 1. (Dispersal and evolution of plants and
animals; separate chapter on flora.)
Carlquist, S. (1980). Hawaii: A Natural History, 2nd Ed. Pacific Tropical Botanical
Garden, Honolulu. 468 pp. (Geology, fauna, vegetation types.)
Fosberg, F.R. (1975). The deflowering of Hawaii. National Parks and Conservation
Mag. 49(10): 4-10.
Kay, E.A. (1972). A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings. Univ.
of Hawaii, Honolulu. 653 pp. (Covers physical geography, flora, fauna. See in
particular F.R. Fosberg on the derivation of the flora, pp. 396-408; H. St John on
endemism, pp. 517-519.)
Honduras
Area 112,087 sq. km
Population 4,232,000
Floristics An estimated 5000 species of vascular plants (Gentry, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1); 148 endemic species (IUCN figures).
Vegetation Tropical moist forest, covering slightly less than half the country’s
forested area; the remainder mainly coniferous forest; other vegetation types include
montane wet forests, moist subtropical forests, wet tropical forests and cloud forests.
According to FAO/UNEP (1981), estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved
forest 480 sq. km/annum out of 18,550 sq. km; Myers (1980), presumably including the
coniferous forests, records 70,500 sq. km as forested according to ‘‘recent government
documentation’’, of which ‘‘rather more than 40,000 sq. km’’ are moist forests, mostly in
the eastern part of the country and including the relict Mosquitia forest.
Checklists and Floras Honduras is covered by the Flora Mesoamericanea Project,
described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). Also ‘‘most plants’? of Honduras are included in the
completed Flora of Guatemala and related articles in Fieldiana, outlined under
Guatemala. Floras and papers specifically on Honduras include:
Gilmartin, A.J. (1965). Las Bromeliacias de Honduras. Ceiba 11(2): 1-81. (97 species
listed.)
Molina, A. (1975). Enumeracion de las plantas de Honduras. Ceiba 19(1): 1-118. (List
of species names; no information on each.)
Nelson, C. (1976-1979). Plantas nuevas para la flora de Honduras, I-III. Ceiba 20:
58-68; 21: 51-55; 23: 85-92.
Nelson, C. (1978). Contribuciénes a la Flora de la Mosquitia, Honduras. Ceiba 22(1):
41-64. (338 species listed.)
Record, S.J. (1927). Trees of Honduras. Trop. Woods 10: 10-47.. (Description of trees
and their uses.)
Standley, P.C. (1930). A second list of the Trees of Honduras. Trop. Woods 21: 9-41.
(c. 480 species listed.)
161
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Standley, P.C. (1931). Flora of the Lancetilla Valley, Honduras. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Bot. Ser. 10: 1-418. (Description of habitats and annotated list of species for the
Tela area.)
Standley, P.C. (1934). Additions to the Trees of Honduras. Trop Woods 37: 27-39. (55
species listed.)
Yuncker, T.G. (1938). A contribution to the Flora of Honduras. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Bot. Ser. 17(4): 287-407. (List of species for the Tela area and also Siguatepeque.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The list of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:2, V:5, R:5, I:8, K:124, nt:3; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - V:7, R:5, I:2 (world categories).
Threatened plants are mentioned in:
D’Arcy, W.G. (1977). Endangered landscapes in Panama and Central America: the
threat to plant species. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 89-104.
Stolze, R.G. (1979). Ferns new and rare in Honduras. Brenesia 16: 139-141. (5 new
records to the flora; 3 species found to be rare.)
Laws Protecting Plants No information. The U.S. Government has determined
Abies guatemalensis (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico) as ‘Threatened’
under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
Botanic Gardens
Escuela Agricola Panamericana, El Zamorano, Francisco Morazan.
Jardin Botanico, Lancetilla, Tela.
Useful Addresses
Asociacioén Hondurena de Ecologia para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza, Apto T-250,
Tegucigalpa D.C.
Departamento de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Honduras, Ciudad
Universitaria, Tegucigalpa.
Departamento de Vida Silvestre, Direccidn General de Recursos Naturales Renovables
(DIGERENARB), Secretaria de Recursos Naturales, Tegucigalpa, D.C.
Herbario Paul C. Standley, Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Apto 93, Tegucigalpa.
Additional References
Campanella, P. et al. (1982). Honduras. Perfil Ambiental del Pais. Un estudio de
Campo. Resumen Ejecutivo. AID Contract No. AID/SOD/PDC-C-0247. JRB
Associates. McLean, U.S.A. 201 pp.
Holdridge, L.R. (1962). Mapa Ecoldégico de Honduras. Organizacion de los Estados
Americanos. Lith. A. Hoen & Co., Baltimore, Md, U.S.A.
Molina, A. (1974). Vegetacion del Valle de Comayagua. Ceiba 18: 47-80.
Yuncker, T.G. (1945). The vegetation of Honduras. In Verdoorn, F. (Ed.), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 55-56. (Short descriptive account.)
162
Hong Kong
Hong Kong consists of the New Territories to the south of the Chinese province of
Guangdong, and more than 200 islands, one of which is Hong Kong Island. Rugged hills
comprise much of the territory; the highest peaks include Tai Mo Shan (957 m), Lantau
Peak (934 m) and Kowloon Peak (602 m). More than 80% of the population live in urban
areas covering only 20% of the land area.
Area 1062 sq. km
Population 5,498,000
Floristics About 2500 vascular plant species of which about 1800 taxa are native
(Hong Kong Herbarium, 1978); species endemism perhaps as low as 1% (C.C. Lay, 1984,
in litt.). Many species are also found in south China, India, Japan, Taiwan and Vietnam.
Vegetation Semi-deciduous broadleaved forest throughout Hong Kong has been
greatly modified by man; remnants on steep ravines, hillsides and around some villages
and temples, particularly in the New Territories; scrubland and exotic plantations also
found on hill slopes; grassland on hilltops especially on many offshore islands (Hong Kong
Herbarium, 1978).
Checklists and Floras
Bentham, G. (1861). Flora Hongkongensis: A Description of the Flowering Plants and
Ferns of the Island of Hongkong. Reeve, London. 482 pp. (The only comprehensive
Flora, but rather dated; for additions see the Supplement by H.F. Hance, 1872,
London, 59 pp.)
Edie, H.H. (1978). Ferns of Hong Kong. Hong Kong Univ. Press. 285 pp.
Hong Kong Herbarium (1978). Check List of Hong Kong Plants. Dept of Agriculture
and Fisheries Bulletin no. 1 (revised). Govt Printer, Hong Kong. (Checklist of 2502
vascular species, including introductions.)
Field-guides
Thrower, S.L. (1971). Plants of Hong Kong. Longman, Hong Kong. 192 pp.
Urban Services Department (1975, 1977). Hong Kong Trees, 2 vols. Govt Printer,
Hong Kong.
Urban Services Department (1976). Hong Kong Herbs and Vines. (Revised Edition.)
Govt Printer, Hong Kong. 114 pp.
Urban Services Department (1976). Hong Kong Shrubs, 2nd Ed. Govt Printer, Hong
Kong. 112 pp. tee
Urban Services Department (1978). Hong Kong Freshwater Plants. Govt Printer, Hong
Kong. 89 pp.
Urban Services Department (1980). Hong Kong Orchids. Govt Printer, Hong Kong.
108 pp.
Walden, B.M. and Hu, S.Y. (1977). Wild Flowers of Hong Kong Around the Year.
Sino-American Publ. Co., Hong Kong. 83 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants No national list of threatened plants.
Ailanthus fordii, Camellia crapnelliana and C. granthamiana are included in The IUCN
Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Laws Protecting Plants All wild plants are protected by law. Written permission
from the Director of Agriculture and Fisheries is needed for the collection of any wild
plants from unleased Crown land. Special protection is given to ‘“‘threatened”’ plants
163
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
which include Camellia spp., Rhododendron spp., Magnolia spp., and all orchids (C.C.
Lay, 1984, in Jitt.).
Voluntary Organizations
WWF-Hong Kong, 10th Floor, Wing on Life Building, 22 Des Voeux Road, Central,
Hong Kong.
Botanic Gardens
Hong Kong Zoological and Botanic Gardens, Urban Services Department, Hong Kong.
(Offices at 12th Floor, Central Government Offices, West Wing, 11 Ice House
Street, Hong Kong.)
Kadoorie Experimental and Extension Farms and Botanic Gardens (Kadoorie
Agricultural Aid Association), Lam Kam Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong
Kong.
Ocean Park Botanic Garden, Aberdeen, Hong Kong.
Useful Addresses
Agriculture and Fisheries Department, 12th Floor, Government Offices, 393 Canton
Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
Department of Biology, CUHK, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong.
Department of Botany, Hong Kong University, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
Hungary
Area 93,032 sq. km
Population 10,786,000
Floristics c. 2300-2500 vascular species, of which 40-45 are endemic (F. Németh,
1984, pers. comm.); 11 endemics according to IUCN figures. D.A. Webb (1978, cited in
Appendix 1) estimates 2250-2450 native vascular species from Flora Europaea. Rich in
Tertiary and Pleistocene relicts. Areas of high endemism: the Central Hungarian Mts and
the Carpathian range. Elements: Mediterranean c. 35%, Eurasian c. 23%, Central
European c. 16% (including North Carpathian, Pannonian and Balkan), Atlantic, sub-
Mediterranean and alpine (Németh, 1979; Németh and Seregélyes, n.d.).
Vegetation Much of natural vegetation replaced by agriculture, especially on the
central Great Hungarian Plain; semi-natural vegetation restricted to c. 10%. 4 main
vegetation types still apparent: (a) mountain bog on peat with sedges and rushes (Carex,
Eriophorum); (b) mountain meadows rich in grass species (especially Festuca, Poa, and
Bromus); (c) steppe or ‘puszta’, an alkaline and very saline grassland rich in annuals; (d)
broadleaved and coniferous woodland. Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) forms extensive stands
in western Hungary, together with beech and hornbeam/oak forests on dry grasslands and
rocky steppes in the lowlands (e.g. Szatmar-Bereg Plain in the Bodrog and Kiskun areas)
(Vajda, 1956; Németh and Seregélyes, n.d.).
Checklists and Floras Hungary is covered by the completed Flora Europaea
(Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). National Floras are:
Javorka, S. and Csapody, V. (1929-1934). A Magyar Fléra Képekben: Iconographia
Florae Hungaricae, 19 vols. Studium, Budapest.
164
Hungary
Sod, R. and Karpati, Z. (1968). Magyar Flora: Harasztok (Pteridophytes) Viragos
Noévények (Anthophytes). In Névényhatdroz6, 4th Ed. Tankényvkiadé, Budapest.
846 pp. (Illustrated key to native, naturalized and commonly cultivated vascular
plants; phytosociology and habitat details.)
See also:
Javorka, S. and Csapody, V. (1979). Iconographia Florae Partis Austro-orientalis
Europae Centralis, revised edition. Fischer, Stuttgart. 704 pp. (Atlas of vascular
plants of Hungary and neighbouring areas; illus.)
Sod, R. de (1975). Hauptergebnisse der Floristischen-Geobotanischen und
Systematischen Forschungen in Hungarn, 1961-1972. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2):
599-613.
Field-guides
Javorka, S. and Csapody, V. (1972). Erdé Mezé Virdgai, A Magyar Flora Szines
Kisatlasza. Mezégazdasagi Kiad6, Budapest. 246 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants Recently published national plant Red Data
Book:
Németh, F. and Seregélyes, T. (n.d.). Hiite die Blumen. Hungarian State Office for
Environment and Nature Conservation, with MTI Publishing, Budapest. 127 pp.
(Includes distribution and conservation data for 52 rare and threatened taxa; lists
over 300 protected taxa; maps; English edition (Save the Wild Flowers: Some
Rarities Growing in Hungary); also in German; colour photographs; line drawings.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - E:1, V:8, R:1,
I:1; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:1, V:13, R:5, 1:4 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants Decree on Nature Conservation (1982) and Ordinance
No.1 (1982) provides protection for 172 plant taxa, 24 genera and 2 families. The 1982 Act
is published in:
Anon (1983). Nature Conservation Legislation in Hungary. National Authority for
Environment Protection and Nature Conservation, Budapest. 55 pp., 5 annexes.
(Annexes 1 and 3 list protected and specially protected plant species.)
See also:
Borhidi, A. and Janossy, D. (1984). Protected Plants and Animals in Hungary. Ambio
13(2): 106. aA
Csapody, I. (1982). Védett Névényeink (Our protected plants). Gondolat, Budapest.
346 pp. (In Hungarian; black and white photographs and colour drawings.)
Botanic Gardens
Agrobotanic Garden, University of Agricultural Sciences, 2103 Gédéllé.
Botanic Garden of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2163 Vacratot.
Budapest Févaros Allat-es Névenykertje, Varosliget, 1371 Budapest XIV.
Erdeszeti és Faipari Egyetem Botanikus Kertjke, 9401 Sopron.
Hortus Botanicus, Instituti Plantarum Medicinalium, 2011 Budakalasz, Pf 11.
Institutum Botanicum et Hortus Botanicus, 1502 Budapest pf53, 1118 Budapest XI,
Menesi UT44.
Kamoni Arboretum, Institutum Scientiarum Silviculturae Hungariae, Vérészaszlo u
102, 9707 Szombathely.
165
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Research Centre for Agrobotany, NIAVT, 2766 Tapioszele.
Soroksar Botanical Garden, Budapest.
Szarvas Arboretum, 5540 Szarvas.
University of Budapest Botanical Garden, Illés Utca 25, 1083 Budapest.
Useful Addresses
Department of Nature Conservation, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Kossathajostev
11, 1860 Budapest 5.
Hungarian State Office for Environmental and Nature Conservation, Orszagos
Természetvédelmi Hivatal, Kdlt6 utca 21, 1121 Budapest.
National Office for Nature Conservation, Tulipan Koz 10, 9400 Sopron.
Additional References
Németh, F. (1979). The vascular flora and vegetation on the Szabadszallas-Fiilépszallas
territory of the Kiskunsag National Park (KNP), I. Stud. Bot. Hungarica 13:
79-105. (In English; checklist of vascular plants in the National Park; includes
valuable table showing phytogeograhical composition of entire Hungarian flora.)
Sod, R. (1964-1980). A Magyar Flora és Vegetacié Rendszertani-Noévényféldrajzi
Kézikényve, 6 vols. Akadémiai Kiadé6, Budapest. (A systematic geobotanical work;
detailed phytosociological classification; includes bryophytes.)
Vajda, E. (1956). A Magyar Névényvildg Képeskoényve. English translation by E. Racz
(Wild Flowers in Hungary: The Origin and Development of Plant Communities).
Corvina, Budapest. 49 pp. (Illus.)
Iceland
Area 102,819 sq. km
Population 239,000
Floristics c. 470 species of indigenous and naturalized vascular plants, of which
nearly 20% believed introduced by man during the past 1100 years (Einarsson, 1984, in
litt.). 1 endemic species (IUCN figure). Elements: circumpolar; amphi-atlantic (plants
distributed almost equally on both sides of the Atlantic); eastern element; and western or
American element (Einarsson, in litt.).
Vegetation Original spruce and birch forests once occupied coastal areas up to
400 m; now completely cleared due to extensive sheep grazing. Today forest occupies only
c. 1250 sq. km in the more sheltered lowland valleys where willow, birch and rowan
(Sorbus aucuparia) survive. Arctic/alpine tundra in centre and north of country, with
dwarf shrubs (Juniperus, Betula nana and Arctostaphylos). Elsewhere, large areas of
almost bare rock, gravel and sand, sparsely colonized by mosses, lichens and vascular
plants. Extensive wetlands, but many in the lowlands now drained.
Checklists and Floras Iceland is covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin
et al. 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). There is no up-to-date national Flora. The most
recent account is:
Grontved, J. (1942). The Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta of Iceland. In Rosenvinge,
L.K. et al. (Eds), The Botany of Iceland (cited under ‘Additional References’).
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Iceland
(Detailed introduction about vegetation, phytogeography, botanical exploration and
research; in English.)
Also relevant:
Kristinsson, H. (1973-1978). Recent literature on the botany of Iceland. Acta Bot.
Islandica 2: 67-76; 3: 102-104; 4: 67-74; 5: 63-70.
Love, A. (1963). Taxonomic botany in Iceland since 1945. Webbia 18: 277-301.
Léve, A. (1970). Emendations in the Icelandic flora. Taxon 19(2): 298-302.
Field-guides
Love, A. (1981). Islenzk Ferdaflora, 2nd Ed. Almenna Bokafélagid, Reykavik. 429 pp.
(In Icelandic; lists protected species; colour plates; English edition, 1983.)
Ostenfeld, C.H. and Gréntved, J. (1934). The Flora of Iceland and the Faeroes. Levin
and Munksgaard, Copenhagen. 195 pp. (Standard English Flora of Iceland.)
Stefansson, S. (1948). Fldra Islands, 3rd Ed. by S. Steindorsson. Islenzka
Natturufraedifélag, Akureyri. 407 pp. (In Icelandic.)
Wolseley, P. (1979). A Field Key to the Flowering Plants of Iceland. Thule Press,
Sandwick, Shetland. 64 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants No plant Red Data Book. An unpublished
threatened plant list has been prepared for the Council of Europe by the Nature
Conservation Council and the Department of Botany in the Icelandic Museum of Natural
History (addresses below). 44 taxa are listed.
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - R:1; non-
endemics rare or threatened worldwide - none.
Laws Protecting Plants The Nature Conservation Act 1956, amended 1971,
provides protection for plant species in Article 23, which states, ‘‘The Nature
Conservation Council can declare the protection of scientifically or culturally important
plants or animals in order to prevent their disturbance, decrease or extinction. Protection
can be applied locally or to the whole country.’’ At present 31 taxa of vascular plants are
protected in the whole country. It is absolutely forbidden to pick the leaves or flowers,
uproot or damage any of these plants. For the list of protected plants see Léve (1981).
Voluntary Organizations None relate specifically to plants but the main nature
conservation organizations are:
Icelandic Association of Nature Conservation Societies, Sundstraeti 24, 400 Isafjordur.
Icelandic Environment Union, Skolavérdustig 25, 101 Reykjavik.
Botanic Gardens
Grasagardur Reyjavikur (Botanic Gardens of Reykjavik), Skulatun 2, 105 Reykjavik.
Lystigardur Akureyrar (Botanic Section, Public Gardens of Akureyri), Hafnarstraeti
81, P.O. Box 95, 600 Akureyri.
Useful Addresses
Icelandic Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 5320, 125 Reykjavik.
Institute of Biology, University of Iceland, Grensasvegur 12.
Landvernd (Icelandic Environment Union), Skolavérdustigur 25, 101 Reykjavik.
Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 580, 602 Akureyri.
Nature Conservation Council, Hverfisgata 26, 101 Reykjavik.
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Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Additional References
Love, A. and D. (1956). Cytotaxonomical conspectus of the Icelandic Flora. Acta
Horti Gotoburgensis 20(4): 65-291.
Rosenvinge, L.K. et al. (Eds) (1912-1949). The Botany of Iceland, 5 vols, 9 parts.
J. Frimodt and E. Munksgaard, Copenhagen. (1 and 2 - physical geography,
diatoms, bryophytes; 3 - vegetation studies, fungi, genus Taraxacum, by J.
Gréntved; 4 - pteridophytes, spermatophytes, habitat accounts; 5 - flora of
Reykjanes Peninsula, south-west Iceland, by J. Gréntved and E. Hadac.)
India
Area 3,166,828 sq. km
Population 746,742,000
Floristics An estimated 15,000 vascular plant species (Botanical Survey of India,
1983b) including c. 600 pteridophytes. About 5000 endemic vascular plant species; c. 140
endemic genera, but no endemic families. Areas rich in endemism are north-east India, the
southern parts of peninsular India, the Western Ghats and the north-western and eastern
Himalayas. Tropical S.E. Asian and Malayan elements comprise c. 35% of the flora; also
temperate Asian elements (8%), Mediterranean-Iranian elements (5%) (Nayar, 1977).
Vegetation Tropical moist deciduous or monsoon forests are the natural
vegetation cover over much of India between the Himalayas, Thar and Western Ghats.
Tropical evergreen rain forest up to 1200 m, in north-east, and along seaward side of the
Western Ghats in the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, mostly
cleared below 500 m; mangrove forests most extensive along the south coast of West
Bengal, particularly the Sunderban region; tropical semi-evergreen forests and subtropical
broadleaved hill forest below 1500 m on the Himalayan foothills of Assam, and in the
Western Ghats. Tropical dry deciduous forest with Teak (Tectona grandis) and tropical
moist deciduous forest with Sal (Shorea robusta) in central and northern India at
450-600 m, but depleted; extensive areas of bamboo forests, especially in south. Montane
and temperate forests grade into coniferous forests and alpine scrub in Himalayas over
3000 m. Desert or near-desert conditions in western Rajasthan and Gujarat; extensive
thorn scrub in Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Much of India’s natural vegetation has been greatly modified by various forms of
agriculture, forestry and urbanization. Over 50% of the land area is cultivated, with rice
the most important crop. Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved tropical
forests 1320 sq. km/annum out of a total of 460,440 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
However, according to sources quoted in Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1), only as little
as c. 260,000 sq. km can be considered to be ‘‘adequately stocked forestlands’,
comprising 21,040 sq. km of tropical evergreen rain forest, 8340 sq. km of semi-evergreen
rain forest, 102,000 sq. km of tropical moist deciduous forest and 138,750 sq. km of
tropical dry deciduous forest. All forests, particularly moist forest types, are rapidly being
degraded as a result of population pressure and shifting cultivation.
See Champion and Seth (1968) for a comprehensive account of vegetation, and the
summary accounts for each State in Bull. Bot. Survey India (1977), 19(1-4). 336 pp.
168
India
A series of vegetation maps has been prepared for Peninsular India at 1:1,000,000,
showing degradation status, available from the Scientific Section, French Institute,
Pondicherry, India. See also:
Anon (1976). Atlas of Forest Resources of India. National Atlas Organization,
Calcutta. (Major forest types based on classification of Champion and Seth, 1968.)
Checklists and Floras India is covered by the Flora of British India (Hooker,
1872-1897), and is included in the Flora of Eastern Himalaya (1966, 1971, 1975), both
cited in Appendix 1. The Sikkim Himalaya is included in Grierson and Long (1980) and
(1983- ), cited under Bhutan. For ferns see Beddome (1892) and the companion volume by
Nayar and Kaur (1972), cited in Appendix 1.
A national Flora is being published:
Botanical Survey of India (1978- ). Flora of India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
(18 fascicles so far, most covering a small family or single genus.)
The Flora of India project was re-organized in 1984 with a target of 15-20 volumes to be
published over a period of 15 years, with collaboration between the Botanical Survey of
India and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Each volume will treat c. 1000 species. The
Himalayas will be covered as a single geographical unit, with records of plants found in
Bhutan, Nepal and the Sikkim Himalayas. A checklist of c. 18,000 flowering plant taxa
will be prepared in 1986.
There are many Floras at State and regional level. Only a selection are cited here. For a
comprehensive bibliography see the proceedings of the Symposium on Status of Floristic
Studies in India in Bull. Bot. Survey India (1977), vol. 19. 336 pp. The Flora Malesiana
Bulletin, cited in Appendix 1, also includes a bibliographic section covering India. Among
the more recent Floras are the following:
Bhandari, M.M. (1978). Flora of the Indian Desert. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
471 pp. (Introduction covers physical geography, floristics and vegetation of the
desert areas of north-west India; 592 species treated.)
Chowdhery, H.J. and Wadhwa, B.M. (1984). Flora of Himachal Pradesh: Analysis, 1.
Flora of India, Ser. 2. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 340 pp. (Enumeration of
1202 flowering plant species, including Ranunculaceae to Caprifoliaceae (85
families). Covers north-western and western Himalayas; notes on distributions.)
Cooke, T. (1901-1903). The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, 3 vols. London. (1 -
Ranunculaceae to Rubiaceae; 2 - Elaeagnaceae to Gramineae; 3 - Compositae to
Thymelaeaceae. Reprinted in 1958 by the Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.)
Dhar, U. and Kachroo, P. (1983). Alpine Flora of Kashmir Himalaya. Scientific Publ.,
Jodhpur. 280 pp. (Includes annotated checklists, distribution maps, floristic
analyses.)
Haines, H.H. (1921-1925). The Botany of Bihar and Orissa, 6 parts. Govt of Bihar and
Orissa. (Reprinted 1961 by the Botanical Survey of India.)
Kanjilal, U.N. et al. (1934-1940). Flora of Assam, 5 vols. Shillong. (Covers mainly
woody species.)
Maheshwari, J.K. (1963). The Flora of Delhi. Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Dehli. 447 pp. (Covers 478 out of a total of 531 indigenous and
naturalized species of angiosperms.)
Matthew, K.M. (1981-1983). The Flora of Tamilnadu Carnatic, 3 vols. Rapinat
Herbarium, Tiruchirapalli. (1 - Materials for the Flora, documentation of 32,000
169
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
vascular plant specimens; notes on forest types, ethnobotany; 2 - detailed accounts
of 2260 species; 3 - illustrations.)
Nair, N.C. (1977). Flora of Bashahr Himalayas. International Bioscience Publications,
Hissar. 360 pp. (Enumeration of 1629 species of angiosperms and gymnosperms
found between 650-6930 m in Kinaur and Mahasu districts of Himachel Pradesh.)
Nair, N.C. and Henry, A.N. (1983- ). Flora of Tamil Nadu, India. Series 1: Analysis,
1. Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore. (3 vols planned in Series 1, the first
includes enumeration of c. 2000 angiosperms covering Ranunculaceae to
Sambucaceae; economic plants, endemics, rare and endangered plants indicated.)
Puri, G.S., Jain, S.K., Mukherjee, S.K., Sarup, S., and Kotwal, N.N. (1964). Flora of
Rajasthan - West of the Aravallis. Rec. Bot. Survey India 19(1). 159 pp. (Covers
750 species in 90 families.)
Raizada, M.B. (1976). Supplement to Duthie’s ‘Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and
the Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts’. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun. 355 pp.
Rao, R.R. and Razi, B.A. (1981). A Synoptic Flora of Mysore District. International
Bioscience Series 7. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers, New Delhi. 674 pp.
Santapau, H. (1953). The flora of Khandala on the Western Ghats of India. Rec. Bot.
Survey India 16(1). 396 pp.
Sharma, B.M. and Kachroo, P. (1981). Flora of Jammu and Plants of Neighbourhood,
2 vols. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
Sharma, S. and Tiagi, B. (1979). Flora of North-East Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers,
New Dehli. 540 pp. (Treats 612 species of flowering plants in 95 families.)
Varma, S.K. (1981). Flora of Bhagalpur: Dicotyledons. Today and Tomorrow’s
Printers. 414 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants In 1980, a 5-year Project on Study, Survey
and Conservation of Endangered Flora (POSSCEF) with financial support from the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., was initiated in the Botanical Survey of
India (address below). Illustrated accounts and lists of rare, threatened and endemic
species are in preparation. The most comprehensive list so far is:
Botanical Survey of-India (1983a). Materials For a Catalogue of Threatened Plants of
India. Dept of Environment, Government of India, Calcutta. 69 pp. (Lists c. 900
rare and threatened taxa together with their distributions. Prepared by the
POSSCEF team under S.K. Jain for the IUCN Plants Programme. Reviewed in
Threatened Plants Newsletter 12: 18 (1983), where H. Synge predicts as many as
3000-4000 Indian plants might be threatened (see also ibid. 9: 1-3 (1982)).
The first volume of a Plant Red Data Book has recently been published:
Jain, S.K. and Sastry, A.R.K. (Eds) (1984). Indian Plant Red Data Book, 1. Calcutta.
(Data sheets on 125 species, with illustrations.)
POSSCEF also issues a Plant Conservation Bulletin, edited by S.K. Jain and A.R.K
Sastry, containing numerous papers on threatened plants; in particular see:
Hajra, P.K. (1983). Rare, threatened and endemic plants of the western Himalayas -
monocotyledons. bid. 4: 1-13. (Annotated list of c. 100 species.)
Raghavan, R.S. and Singh, N.P. (1983). Endemic and threatened plants of western
India. Ibid. 3: 1-16. (Annotated list of 207 species.)
Vajravelu, E. (1983). Rare, threatened and endemic flowering plants of South India
(Part 1). Ibid. 4: 14-30. (Annotated list of 212 species.)
170
India
A seminar on threatened plants of India was organized at Dehra Dun in September 1981.
The proceedings have been published in:
Jain, S.K. and Rao, R.R. (Eds) (1983). An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India.
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 334 pp. (Includes 60 papers presented at the
seminar; many include lists of threatened plants with IUCN categories for various
regions. See for example N.C. Shah on threatened medicinal plants of Uttar Pradesh
Himalaya, pp. 40-49; R.P. Pandley ef a/. on threatened plants of Rajasthan, pp.
55-62; S.D. Sabnis and K.S.S. Rao on threatened plants in south-east Kutch, pp.
71-77; R.R. Rao and K. Haridasan on threatened plants of Meghalaya, pp. 94-103;
Sandhyajyoti Das and N.C. Deori on endemic orchids of north-east India, pp.
104-109; S.K. Kataki on rare plants in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, pp. 146-150;
A.R.K. Sastry and P.K. Hajra on rare and endemic rhododendrons, pp. 222-231;
K.N. Bahadur and S.S. Jain on rare bamboos, pp. 263-271; R.K. Arora and E.
Roshini Nayar on the distibution of wild relatives and related species of economic
plants in India, pp. 285-291.)
Other papers and publications including lists are:
Abraham, Z. and Mehrotra, B.N. (1982). Some observations on endemic species and
rare plants of the montane flora of the Nilgiris, South India. J. Econ. Taxonomic
Botany 3(3): 863-867. (Lists 26 rare endemics and 2 rare non-endemics.)
Bahadur, K.N. and Jain, S.S. (1981). Rare bamboos of India. Indian J. Forestry 4(4):
280-286. (Preliminary review of 26 rare bamboos.)
Chandra, P. (1983). Observations on the rare and endangered ferns of India. New
Botanist 10: 41-47. (Lists 49 taxa; notes on distribution and conservation status.)
Cook, C.D.K. (1980). The status of some Indian endemic plants. Threatened Plants
Committee - Newsletter 6: 17-18. (Mentions 5 threatened wetland species.)
Henry, A.N., Vivekananthan, K. and Nair, N.C. (1978). Rare and threatened flowering
plants of south India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 684-697. (Lists 224
angiosperms.)
Jain, S.K. and Sastry, A.R.K. (1980). Threatened Plants of India: A State-of-the-Art
Report. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 48 pp. (Short accounts of 134 species,
many with colour photographs; reviewed at some length in Threatened Plants
Committee - Newsletter 6: 15-16 (1980).)
Kataki, S.K. (1976). Indian orchids - a note on conservation. American Orchid Soc.
Bull. 46(2): 117-121. (Lists threatened orchids.)
Kataki, S.K., Jain, S.K. and Sastry, A.R.K. (1984). Threatened and Endemic Orchids
of Sikkim and North-eastern India. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 95 pp.
(Descriptions, distributions, illustrations of over 100 species.)
Sahni, K.C. (1979). Endemic, relict, primitive and spectacular taxa in eastern
Himalayan flora and strategies for their conservation. Indian J. Forestry 2(2):
181-190. (Mentions 30 taxa rare or threatened in the Himalayan region; notes on
vegetation.)
Santapau, H. (1970). Endangered plant species and their habitats. In IUCN, J/th
Technical Meeting Papers and Proceedings, 2. Problems of Threatened Species.
IUCN New Series 18, Switzerland. Pp. 83-88. (Includes list of threatened medicinal
plants and orchids in need of protection.)
A number of papers on plant conservation in India are included in:
Jain, S.K. and Mehra, K.L. (Eds) (1983). Conservation of Tropical Plant Resources.
Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Conservation of Tropical Plant
171
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Resources in South East Asia, New Delhi, March 8-12, 1982. Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah. (Workshop reviewed in Threatened Plants Newsletter 9: 1-3 (1982)
and book in ibid. 13: 19-20 (1984).)
In particular see:
Gupta, R. and Sethi, K.L. Conservation of medicinal plants resources in the
Himalayan region. Jbid., pp. 101-109. (Lists 8 Endangered, 12 Vulnerable and 8
Rare medicinal plants.)
Husain, A. Conservation of genetic resources of medicinal plants in India. [bid., pp.
110-117. (Notes on 15 taxa threatened by overcollecting.)
5 species are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics,
principally derived from Botanical Survey of India (1983a): endemic taxa - Ex:4, E:18,
V:2, R:3, 1:541.
Laws Protecting Plants
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Govt of India, Ministry of Law, Justice and
Company Affairs. (Appendices have lists of ‘endangered’ species to which plants are
being added; S.K. Jain, 1984, in litt.)
Voluntary Organizations
Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay
400023. j
Friends of Trees, Tata Building, Choringhee Road, Calcutta 17.
Indian Society of Naturalists (INSONA), c/o Maharaja Fatehsingh Zoo Trust,
Indumati Mahul, Jawaharlal Nehru Marg, Baroda 390001.
WWF-India, c/o Godrej & Boyce Mfg. Co. Private Ltd., Lalbaug, Parel, Bombay
400012.
Botanic Gardens The Botanical Survey of India have prepared 2 reports on
Indian botanic gardens (1983):
A Directory of Botanic Gardens in India (A Preliminary Account of History,
Organisation and Holdings of Some Government University and Public Gardens of
India). 131 pp. (Entries for 55 Indian botanic gardens and botanical institutions.
The largest garden is the Indian Botanic Garden, Sibpur, Howrah 71103, West
Bengal.)
Materials for a Green Book of Botanic Gardens in India. 88 pp. (Lists 100 rare,
endangered and endemic plants known to be cultivated in the 8 botanic gardens run
by the Botanical Survey.)
Useful Addresses
Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah 71103. (Includes POSSCEF
programme.)
Department of the Environment, Bikaner House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi 110011.
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Dehli 110012.
CITES Management Authority: The Director of Wildlife Preservation, Government of
India, Ministry of Environment, Room 240, Krishi Bharan, New Delhi 110001.
CITES (for Orchidaceae): The Deputy Director of Wildlife Preservation, Government
of India, 97/18 Hazra Road, Calcutta, West Bengal.
CITES Scientific Authority: Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden, Howrah
71103.
172
India
Additional References
Botanical Survey of India (1983b). Flora and Vegetation of India - An Outline.
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 24 pp. (Introduction to the flora and vegetation
of India and its phytogeographical affinities; review of the District Flora
Programme and threats to plant life. Prepared for the IUCN Plants Programme.)
Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of
India. Govt of India Press, Delhi. 404 pp.
Chatterjee, D. (1939). Studies on the endemic flora of India and Burma. J. Royal
Asiatic Soc. Bengal Sci. 5: 19-67.
Mani, M.S. (Ed.) (1974). Ecology and Biogeography in India. Junk, The Hague.
773 pp. (Chapters on vegetation, flora, biogeography.)
Nayar, M.P. (1977). Changing patterns of the Indian flora. Bull. Bot. Survey India 19:
145-155. (Origin and distribution of the flora; floristic relationships.)
Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P, Saxena, A.K. and Rawat, Y.S. (1984). India’s Silent Valley
and its threatened rain-forest ecosystems. Envir. Conserv. 11(3): 223-233.
For useful background information on the Himalayan region see Lall and Moddie (1981),
cited in Appendix 1. For an account of the alpine flora of the Sikkim Himalaya see
Bulletin of the Alpine Garden Society 52(3), September 1984 (No. 217).
Indonesia
An archipelago of 13,667 islands of which about 600 are inhabited. A chain of high
mountains stretch in an arc from western Sumatra, through southern Java and parts of the
Lesser Sunda Islands.
Area 1,919,443 sq. km
Irian Jaya: 412,981 sq. km; Java: 134,044 sq. km; Kalimantan: 550,203 sq. km; Maluku:
74,504 sq. km; Nusa Tenggara: c. 80,000 sq. km; Sulawesi: 227,654 sq. km; Sumatra:
524,097 sq. km.
Population 147,673,800
Irian Jaya: 1,173,800 (1980); Java: 94,000,000 (1981); Kalimantan: 6,700,000 (1980);
Maluku: 1,400,000 (1980); Nusa Tenggara: 6,000,000 (1980); Sulawesi: 10,400,000 (1980);
Sumatra: 28,000,000 (1980).
Floristics One of the richest floras in the world, with about 10,000 trees alone
(FAO, 1982). The archipelago forms the greater part of the botanical region of Malesia.
Floristic affinities are with Asia, and to a lesser extent Australia; about 40% of genera are
either endemic or have their centre of development in Malesia. There are floristic
subdivisions between Sumatra and Java and between Sulawesi and the island of Borneo (of
which Kalimantan forms the greater part). The richest areas are the primary lowland rain
forests of Borneo and Irian Jaya (Jacobs, 1974).
Irian Jaya Good (1960) estimates that the island of New Guinea, of which Irian
Jaya is the western portion, has c. 9000 angiosperm species, of which 90% endemic, and
Parris (1985), cited in Appendix 1, estimates that it has c. 2000 fern species. There are 1465
genera in New Guinea, of which 124 are endemic (van Balgooy, in Paijmans, 1976). The
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Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Tamrau-Arfak mountains of the Volgelkop are important centres of endemism. The flora
is related to both Asia and Australia.
Java 5011 vascular plant species of which 4598 indigenous; includes 497 ferns
(Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1963-1968). Only 10 genera endemic. Dipterocarps
less abundant in the seasonally dry monsoon forests with only 10 species on the island
(Jacobs, 1981; P. Ashton in Flora Malesiana 9(2), 1982, cited in Appendix 1).
Kalimantan No figure for Kalimantan but Borneo, floristically the richest of the
Sunda islands, has c. 10,000-11,000 vascular species (based on Merrill, 1921); Borneo
(whole island) has c. 1000 fern species (Parris, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). Endemism is
high with c. 34% of vascular species and 59 genera restricted to the island. Especially
diverse are the primary lowland rain forests below 300 m, particularly on sandy yellow
soils (FAO, 1981). Borneo, with 267 species, is the centre of diversity of Dipterocarpaceae,
the most important family of commercial trees in the region; 158 dipterocarps are endemic
to the island (Jacobs, 1981; P. Ashton in Flora Malesiana 9(2), 1982, cited in Appendix 1).
Maluku (The Moluccas) A relatively impoverished flora with low endemism, with
western (Sundaland) and eastern (Sahul) elements.
Nusa Tenggara (The Lesser Sunda Islands) Less rich than other parts of
Indonesia; 12% species endemism. Most endemics found on Lombok and Timor
(Kalkman, 1955). Floristic affinities mainly Asian, although in the drier monsoon forests
of the east there are Australian elements (van Steenis, 1979).
Sulawesi Floristically poor compared with neighbouring Borneo. Australasian
elements in high mountains; otherwise Malesian.
Sumatra Comparable in richness to Kalimantan and Irian Jaya; richer than Java,
Sulawesi and smaller islands (FAO, 1982). Species endemism about 12%; 17 endemic
genera. Dipterocarps dominate lowland rain forests; 96 species in all, of which 11 endemic
(Jacobs, 1981; P. Ashton in Flora Malesiana 9(2), 1982, cited in Appendix 1). The Bukit
Barisan Range contains Himalayan elements (van Steenis, 1934).
Vegetation Tropical moist forests are the dominant climax vegetation. Tropical
evergreen rain forest is the most extensive formation, of which Indonesia has an estimated
1,018,000 sq. km, nearly 10% of world total. Deciduous monsoon forests and fire-
maintained savanna grasslands in seasonally dry areas, particularly in southern and
eastern islands. Clearance for agriculture, shifting cultivation, logging and transmigration
programmes are the main causes of deforestation. Mangroves occupy c. 25,000 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forests in Indonesia 6000 sq.
km/annum out of a total of 1,135,750 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981); however, Myers (1980,
cited in Appendix 1), estimates the amount of primary forest remaining is probably well
below 1,000,000 sq. km and possibly as low as 800,000 sq. km.
Indonesia is included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958) and on the
vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora Malesiana region at
scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1. For a general description of the forests of
Indonesia see Whitmore (1975b), cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Direktorat Bina Program (1980). Peta Tegakan Hutan Indonesia, 1:2,750,000. Bogor.
(Map of forest stands of Indonesia.)
Laumonier, Y., Gadrinab, A. and Purnajaya (1983). Southern Sumatra: International
Map of the Vegetation and of Environmental Conditions. Institute de la Carte
174
Indonesia .
International du Tapis Végétal and SEAMEO/BIOTROP, Toulouse. (Scale
1:1,000,000; maps of north and central Sumatra in preparation.)
Irian Jaya Large tracts of primary tropical evergreen rain forest, rich in tree
ferns, palms, bamboos, lianas; dry evergreen forests, with Tristania, Syzygium and
Acacia, in the monsoonal south-east; lower montane forests between 1000-3000 m, with
Araucaria, Podocarpus, Agathis and Nothofagus; upper montane forests up to 4000 m,
with tree ferns, conifers, and rhododendrons; above 4000 m, alpine heathland with low
shrubs, bryophytes and lichens. The Fakfak Mountains have limestone forest and large
areas of anthropogenic grassland. Swamp forests, with sago palm (Metroxylon sagu), and
extensive mangrove forests mainly along the southern coast, and in the north between the
Mamberamo delta westwards to Teluk Cenderawasih; beach forests share most of the
species of similar habitats in Malesia, but are better developed than anywhere else (FAO,
1981). Closed broadleaved forests of all kinds were estimated to cover 380,050 sq. km at
the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This represents 92% of the total land area.
Java All lowland forests have been cleared, with the exception of patches near the
south coast of East Java; in West and East Java, evergreen rain forests are restricted to
isolated patches on south-facing mountain sides; monsoon forests (tropical moist
deciduous forests) with Teak (Tectona grandis), Bombax and Tetrameles in centre and
east; plantations of teak have been established in cleared areas where soils are unsuitable
for cultivation; Tjemera (Casuarina junghuhniana) forests mainly on the northern slopes
of mountains in East Java above 1400 m. Where fire is excluded a succession to mixed oak-
laurel forest begins. Subalpine vegetation above 2400 m, dominated by Ericaceae with
temperate herbaceous species (Backer and Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1963-1968); extensive
montane grasslands following forest destruction by fire (van Steenis, 1972). Limestone
karst with a distinctive flora occurs along Java’s southern and north-eastern coasts, most
of which is now planted with teak. Freshwater swamp forests and mangroves occur in a
few isolated patches. Closed broadleaved forests were estimated to cover 11,800 sq. km at
the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This represents only 9% of the land area. Most of
Java is intensively cultivated (FAO, 1982), and on the island of Madura there is no extant
forest at all.
Kalimantan Tropical lowland evergreen rain forest up to 1300 m; extensive hill
dipterocarp forests and various montane forest formations with Fagaceae, Lauraceae and
Myrtaceae up to 2300 m. Large areas of mangroves, peat swamps and freshwater non-
peaty swamps, and the most extensive heath forests (kerangas) in S.E. Asia. Extensive
secondary forests (blukar) and Alangalang (Jmperata cylindrica) grassland as a result of
past forest clearance. Closed broadleaved forests were estimated to cover 353,950 sq. km
at the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This represents c. 65% of the total land area. A
huge area (c. 30,000 sq. km) of Kalimantan, including 8000 sq. km of primary forest, was
destroyed by fire in 1983.
Maluku Transition from evergreen rain forest in the north-west of Halmahera
and Seram to seasonal monsoon forests in south Halmahera, in Obi and the north-east of
Buru and Banda Sea islands. Small areas of mangroves; freshwater swamps with
important stands of Sago (Metroxylon sagu); lowland forest formations with Melaleuca on
drier soils. Rich montane forests occur on Seram and Halmahera. Closed broadleaved
forests were estimated to cover 47,150 sq. km at the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The
northern islands are being logged and most forest is already parcelled out in timber
concessions (FAO, 1981).
175
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Nusa Tenggara Savanna woodland with Eucalyptus and Casuarina now covers
most of the island (K. Kartawinata, 1984, in litt.); evergreen rain forest only surviving in
isolated patches in steep valleys on south-facing sides of mountain ranges; elsewhere, there
are monsoon forests and extensive grasslands. Timor has some of the finest natural
Sandalwood (Santalum album) forests in the world (FAO, 1981). Closed broadleaved
forests of all kinds were estimated to cover 25,150 sq. km at the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP,
1981). This represents c. 30% of the total land area.
Sulawesi Extensive tracts of primary hill and montane variants of tropical
evergreen rain forest, with few dipterocarps; Syzygium (Myrtaceae) sometimes dominates
forests at all altitudes (FAO, 1982). Forests on limestone and ultrabasic rocks also present.
Small areas of inland heath forest occur in central Sulawesi; mangroves occur in isolated
patches in the south. Large areas in the south and some parts of the north have been
cleared for shifting cultivation (FAO, 1982). Closed broadleaved forests were estimated to
cover 95,250 sq. km at the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1981). This represents c. 40% of the
total land area.
Sumatra Tropical evergreen rain forest dominated by dipterocarps, and with
Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) abundant in some forests in the south; heath forests in
east; lowland peat swamp forest and mangroves along eastern coasts. Drier mountain
areas in north support the only natural pine (Pinus merkusii) forests in Indonesia (FAO,
1982). According to the 1978 Bina Programme, forests cover 57% of the land area (figures
quoted in FAO, 1982); however, estimates from satellite imagery indicate only 42% still
covered by primary forest (FAO, 1982). The total area of closed broadleaved forests was
estimated to be 222,400 sq. km at the end of 1980 (FAO/UNEP, 1980).
Checklists and Floras Indonesia is included in the incomplete but very detailed
Flora Malesiana (1948-), cited in Appendix 1. See, in particular, the extensive
bibliography and history of plant collecting in Series 1, vol. 4, pp. 71-161, and the
annotated selected bibliography in Series 1, vol. 5, pp. i-cxliv. Other floristic accounts
include:
Backer, C.A. and Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C. (1963-1968). Flora of Java
(Spermatophytes Only), 3 vols. Noordhoff (Vols 1, 2) and Wolters-Noordhoff,
Groningen. (Keys and descriptions for all taxa; vegetation types described in vol. 2.)
Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea (1978- ), 2 vols so far. Melbourne
Univ. Press. (Includes Irian Jaya. 1 - vegetation, keys, treatments of Combretaceae,
Magnoliaceae, Meliaceae and many smaller families; edited by J.S. Womersley; 2 -
Elaeocarpaceae, Juglandaceae, Loranthaceae and others; edited by E.E. Henty.)
Kalkman, C. (1955). A plant geographical analysis of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Acta
Bot. Neerl. 4: 200-225. (Lists 480 species in 51 families with occurrence by island.)
Merrill, E.D. (1921). A Bibliographic Enumeration of Bornean Plants. Fraser and
Neave, Singapore. 637 pp. (Systematic enumeration with notes on distribution;
introduction covers vegetation, history of botanical investigation.)
Steenis, C.G.G.J. van (1972). The Mountain Flora of Java. Brill, Leiden. 90 pp.
(Contains 57 plates with pictures of 456 native plants; lists 68 species, including 29
endemics, known only from one mountain in Java; chapters on plant geography,
vegetation types, dispersal and distribution.)
There is extensive information on Indonesian botany in the Flora Malesiana Bulletin, cited
in Appendix 1, which includes a bibliography section.
176
Indonesia
Contributions to the flora and vegetation of New Guinea (including Irian Jaya) have been
published in the journal Nova Guinea (Contributions to the anthropology, botany,
geology and zoology of the Papuan region).
Field-guides
Kartawinata, K. (1983). Jenis-jenis Keruing. LBN-LIPI, Bogor. (Illustrated popular
account of Dipterocarpaceae.)
Meijer, W. (1974). Field Guide to Trees of West Malesia. Univ. of Kentucky. 328 pp.
Steenis, C.G.G.J. van, Den Hoed, G. and Eyma, P.J. (1951). Flora voor de Scholen in
Indonesié. Noordhoff-Kolff NV, Djakarta. 407 pp. (Indonesian translation, 1978,
by M. Soerjowinoto ef al.)
For Irian Jaya, see also the publications listed under Papua New Guinea.
Information on Threatened Plants Little data. 6 species are included in The
IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). IUCN has an unpublished list of 22 orchids endemic
to Java, most of which are Rare, as well as a full list of palms, some of which have
conservation categories. Also relevant:
Anon (1978). Endangered species of trees. Conservation Indonesia 2: 4. (Newsletter of
WWE Indonesia Programme; lists 9 Indonesian trees.)
Voluntary Organizations
Institute for Nature Conservation, Lembaga Pengawetan Alam, Djl. Pledang 30,
Bogor, Java.
Yayasan Indonesia Hijau (Green Indonesia Foundation), P.O. Box 208, Bogor, Java.
Botanic Gardens
Arboreta and Experimental Gardens of Silviculture Division, Forest Research Institute,
Bogor, Java.
Botanical Gardens of Indonesia, Kebun Raya Bogor, Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 11, Bogor,
Java.
Branches of Kebun Raya Bogor are:
Botanic Garden, Cibodas, Sindanglaya, West Java.
Botanic Garden, Purwodadi, Lawang, East Java.
‘Eka Karya’ Botanic Garden, Bedugul, Bali.
Useful Addresses
Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA), Jalan Ir.
H. Juanda 9, P.O. Box 133, Bogor, Java. _
Lembaga Biologi Nasional (LBN), LIPI, Jalan Juanda 18, Bogor, Java.
WWFE/IUCN Conservation for Development Programme, Jalan Ir. H. Juanda 9, P.O.
Box 133, Bogor, Java.
CITES Management Authority: Director General of Forest Protection and Nature
Conservation (Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam), Departemen Kehutanan,
Jalan Ir. H. Juanda No. 9, Bogor, Java.
CITES Scientific Authority: Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Jalan Tenku Chik
Ditiro 43, P.O. Box 250 JKT, Jakarta, Java.
Additional References
FAO (1981, 1982). National Conservation Plan for Indonesia. Field Report of
UNDP/FAO National Parks Development Project Ins/78/061, 8 vols. Bogor,
Indonesia. (1 - Introduction; 2 - Sumatra; 3 - Java and Bali; 4 - Lesser Sundas; 5 -
Kalimantan; 6 - Sulawesi, 7 - Maluku and Irian; 8 - General topics.)
177
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Gibbs, L.S. (1917). A Contribution to the Phytogeography and Flora of the Arfak
Mountains etc. Taylor and Francis, London. 226 pp. (Covers vegetation types and
systematic account of 330 plants collected in Arfak Mts.)
Good, R. (1960). On the geographical relationships of the angiosperm flora of New
Guinea. Bull. British Museum Nat. Hist. Bot. 2: 205-226.
Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.) (1982). Biogeography and Ecology of New Guinea, 2 vols. Junk,
Hague. (1 - Physical background, man’s impact, vegetation and flora; 2 - fauna,
conservation.)
Jacobs, M. (1958). Contribution to the botany of Mount Kerintji and adjacent area in
west central Sumatra, 1. Ann. Bogor. 3: 45-104. (Plant collections now total 3977;
many species collected and named by author.)
Jacobs, M. (1974). Botanical panorama of the Malesian archipelago (vascular plants).
In Unesco, Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources Research
12. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 263-294.
Jacobs, M. (1981). Dipterocarpaceae: the taxonomic and distributional framework.
Malaysian Forester 44: 168-189.
Jacobs, M. (1982). Assessment of the deforestation problem in Malesia.
Rijksherbarium, Leiden. 7 pp. (Typescript.)
Jacobs, M. and de Boo, T.J.J. (1982). Conservation Literature on Indonesia: Selected
Annotated Bibliography. Rijksherbarium, Leiden. 274 pp. (850 entries covering
Dutch, English, French, German and Indonesian literature from c. 1900 to 1979.)
Meijer, W. (1981). Sumatra as seen by a botanist. Indonesian Circle 25: 17-27.
Ochse, J.J. and Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C. (1931). Vegetables of the Dutch East
Indies (edible tubers, bulbs, rhizomes and species included). Buitenzorg. 1006 pp.
(Reprinted 1977. 389 species in 241 genera; notes on uses, habitat requirements,
distribution, propagation.)
Paijmans, K. (Ed.) (1976). New Guinea Vegetation. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 213 pp.
(Includes lists of medicinal and other useful species.)
Petocz, R.G. (1984). Conservation and development in Irian Jaya: a strategy for
rational resource utilization. WWF/IUCN Conservation for Development
Programme in Indonesia (address above). 279 pp. Mimeo.
Steenis, C.G.G.J. van (1934). On the origin of the Malaysian mountain flora, 1. Bull.
Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, Ser. 3, 13: 135-262.
Steenis, C.G.G.J. van (1979). Plant-geography of east Malesia. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 79:
97-178. (Floristic analysis of the Lesser Sunda Islands.)
Whitten, A.J., Damanik, S.J., Anwar, J. and Hisyam, N. (1984). The Ecology of
Sumatra. Gadjah Mada Univ. Press. 583 pp. (Vegetation types; flora and fauna;
effects of disturbance on plant and animal communities.)
WWE/IUCN are supporting field surveys in existing and potential reserve sites identified
in the FAO/UNDFP report A National Conservation Plan for Indonesia (FO:INS/78/061,
Field Report 17) with the aim of developing management plans.
Iran
Area 1,648,000 sq. km
Population 43,799,000
178
Tran
Floristics c. 7000 species (Parsa, 1943-1952) of which c. 20% endemic (Zohary,
1963). Most of the endemics are found in the mountains; centres of endemism include the
peaks of the Elburz and Zagros Mountains, solitary peaks in the Central Plain, mountain
ridges south of Kashan and Yazd, and to the north and south of Kerman (Zohary, 1973,
cited in Appendix 1). The central plateau is species-poor. The Irano-Turanian element
comprises about 69% of the flora. Euro-Siberian and Sudanian elements each make up
5% of the flora. There are also Mediterranean and Saharo-Arabian elements (Zohary,
1963).
Vegetation Deserts cover about 60% of Iran. Hot desert in south-east with sparse
open scrub, including Ziziphus, Acacia and Prosopis on rocky slopes; herbaceous
communities with Atriplex and Heliotropium in sandy depressions; steppes and deserts
with Artemisia and Astragalus over most of centre and east; dry deciduous forest in west
and Pistacia - Amygdalus steppe forest in south and west; Juniperus steppe forests in
north; broadleaved temperate forest (with A/nus, Quercus, Fagus and Carpinus) in north
up to 2500 m (Zohary, 1963). Small areas of mangroves on northern Qeshm Island
(Kunkel, 1977).
Checklists and Floras Iran is included in the incomplete Flora Iranica (1963- ),
cited in Appendix 1. Floras covering Iran and offshore islands include:
Léonard, J. (1981). Contribution a I’Etude de la Flore de la Vegetation des Deserts
d’Iran. Jardin Botanique National Belgique, Meise. (4 fascicles so far. 1 -
Introduction, ferns, gymnosperms, monocotyledons; 2-4 - Compositae, Cruciferae,
Labiatae and many smaller families.)
Parsa, A. (1943-1952). Flore de L’Iran, 12 vols. Tehran. (1 - Physical geography,
ecology, ferns, gymnosperms. Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Tehran;
2-4 - dicotyledons; 5 - monocotyledons, ferns; 6 - Supplement; 7-12 - dicotyledons.
See also the revised, English translation, Flora of Iran (1978- ) by the same author
and publishers.)
Sabeti, H. (1976). Forests, Trees and Shrubs of Iran. Min. Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Tehran. 810 pp. in Persian; 64 pp. in English. (Includes nearly 1000
species, distribution maps.)
Termeh, F. and Moussavi, M. (1980). Plants of Kish Island. Dept of Botany Publ. no.
15. Tehran. (104 species collected on Kish; includes checklist, short descriptions and
line drawings.)
Wendelbo, P. (1976). Annotated checklist of the ferns of Iran. Jran J. Bot. 1: 11-17.
Information on Threatened Plants None, except for 7 threatened plants
mentioned in:
Wendelbo, P. (1978). Endangered flora and vegetation, with notes on some results of
protection. In IUCN, Ecological Guidelines for the Use of Natural Resources in the
Middle East and South-West Asia. 'UCN, Switzerland. Pp. 189-195.
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Garden of the Botanical Institute of Iran, Karaj Road, P.O. Box 8-6096,
Tehran.
Karadj College Botanical Gardens, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tehran,
Karadj, Tehran.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Department of Environment, P.O. Box 1430, Tehran.
179
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Additional References
Kunkel, G. (1977). The Vegetation of Hormoz, Qeshm and Neighbouring Islands
(Southern Persian Gulf Area). Cramer, FL-9490, Vaduz, Liechtenstein. 186 pp.
(Includes annotated checklist giving local distributions; notes on 339 plants collected
on islands.)
Wendelbo, P. (1972). Some distributional patterns within the Flora Iranica area. In
Davis, P.H., Harper, P.C. and Hedge, I.C. (Eds), Plant Life of South-West Asia.
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Pp. 29-41.
Zohary, M. (1963). On the Geobotanical Structure of Iran. Bull. Research Council
Israel Vol. 11D, Suppl. 113 pp. (Includes a ‘Geobotanical Outline Map of Iran’,
scale 1:4,000,000.)
Iraq
Area 438,446 sq. km
Population 15,158,000
Floristics 2937 vascular plant species (A.H. Al-Khayat, 1984, in litt.). 190
endemic species (according to Zohary, 1950). Of the endemics, 95% belong to the Irano-
Turanian floral element and 5% to the Saharo-Sindian element. There are also small
numbers of Mediterranean and Eurosiberian-Boreoamerican species (Zohary, 1950).
Centres of endemism include the montane and subalpine zones of the Kurdish Mountains,
particularly the western slopes (Zohary, 1973, cited in Appendix 1).
Vegetation About 400,000 sq. km is desert or semi-desert, mainly in south, with
dry Poa, Carex and Artemisia steppe; moist steppe zone to north with open savanna
mainly with Pistacia; extensive marshlands with alluvial vegetation in the Mesopotamian
Plain, NW of Basra, between the Tigris and Euphrates; temporarily inundated ‘ahrash’
forest, with Tamarix and Populus, on more stable soils and islands; Quercus aegilops and
Pinus brutia forests on northern mountains between 500-2750 m, much disturbed or
completely destroyed; thorn cushion open shrub formation between 1750-3000 m; alpine
vegetation above 1750 m (Townsend and Guest ef a/., 1966). Natural forest covers only 4%
of the country, almost entirely restricted to north (Kurdistan), mostly overexploited and
overgrazed (Nasser, 1984).
Checklists and Floras The main Floras are:
Rechinger, K.H. (1964). Flora of Lowland Irak. Cramer, Weinheim. 746 pp. (Selected
bibliography.)
Townsend, C.C. and Guest, E. et al. (Eds) (1966- ). Flora of Iraq, 9 vols planned,
5 published so far. Min. of Agriculture, Baghdad. (1 - Geology, vegetation,
ecology, selected bibliography; 2 - ferns, gymnosperms, Rosaceae; 3-9 -
angiosperms continued.)
See also:
Al-Rawi, A. (1964). Wild Plants of Iraq with their Distribution. Technical Bulletin no.
14. Min. of Agriculture, Baghdad. 248 pp. (Introductory notes on vegetation;
checklist of ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms with distributions.)
180
Iraq
Gillett, J.B. (1948). Provisional list of trees and shrubs found in Iraq. (Unpublished
report.)
Zohary, M. (1950). The Flora of Iraq and its Phytogeographical Subdivision. Bulletin
no. 31. Ministry of Economics, Iraq. 201 pp. (Annotated checklist, distribution and
phytogeographical relationships indicated.)
The highlands of northern Iraq are included in Flora Iranica (1963- ), cited in Appendix 1.
Field-guides
Agnew, A.D.Q. (Ed.) (1962). Flora of the Baghdad District. Part 1, Monocotyledons.
College Science Bulletin Suppl. 6, Baghdad. 170 pp. (Line drawings; introductory
notes on vegetation.)
Al-Saad, H.A. and Al-Mayah, A.-R.A. (1983). Aquatic Plants of Iraq. Univ. of Basra.
Karim, F.M. (1978). Flowering Parasitic Plants of Iraq. Min. of Agriculture and
Agrarian Reform, Abu-Ghraib. 90 pp. (Describes about 30 parasitic plants; keys and
line drawings.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Botanic Gardens
Za’faraniyah Botanical Garden, Horticultural Experiment Station, Abu-Ghraib,
Baghdad.
Additional References
Guest, E.R. and Blakelock, R.A. (1954). Bibliography of Iraq. Kew Bull. 9(2): 243-249.
Nasser, M.H. (1984). Forests and forestry in Iraq: prospects and limitations.
Commonwealth Forestry Review 63(4): 299-304.
Wendelbo, P. (1971). Some distributional patterns within the Flora Iranica area. In
Davis, P.H., Harper, P.C. and Hedge, I.C. (Eds), Plant Life of South-West Asia.
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. Pp. 29-41.
Ireland
(For Northern Ireland see United Kingdom)
Area 68,895 sq. km
Population 3,555,000 —
Floristics Size of flora for entire island: 1000-1150 native vascular species,
estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; one endemic
species (IUCN figure). In Republic of Ireland only, c. 21 species less than figure above
(E. Ni Lamha, 1984, in lJitt.). Elements: North American, Atlantic, Mediterranean,
Holarctic, Eurasian and Arctic/alpine.
Vegetation Over much of the country agricultural land, moorland and bog. Most
of the original broadleaved deciduous woodland destroyed; what remains consists mostly
of semi-natural oakwoods with birch and holly. Plantations of pine, spruce and larch now
cover c. 5% of the country (D.A. Webb, 1984, in /itt.). Extensive areas of heath and
heathy grassland on mountains near the coast. The rocky, limestone grasslands of the
Burren region of Co. Clare are of special interest, as are the raised bogs; the latter now
under threat.
181
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras Most publications make no distinction between species
occurrence in the Republic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland, as in the case with the
completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1) and with
Clapham, Tutin and Warburg’s Flora of the British Isles (1962, 1968, cited under U.K.).
The standard Irish Checklist and Flora are, respectively:
Scannell, M.J.P. and Synnott, D.M. (1972). Census Catalogue of the Flora of Ireland.
Stationery Office, Dublin. 127 pp. (Checklist for both the Republic and Northern
Ireland; natives and aliens; new edition in prep.)
Webb, D.A. (1977). An Irish Flora, 6th Ed. Dundalgan Press, Dundalk. 277 pp.
‘County Floras’, in effect, detailed checklists with localities, include:
Booth, E.M. (1979). The Flora of County Carlow. Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.
172 pp.
Brunker, J.P. (1950). Flora of the County Wicklow. Dundalgan Press, Dundalk.
310 pp. (Introduction includes history of the flora, geography, climate, botanical
sub-divisions; pteridophytes, gymnosperms.)
Colgan, N. (1904). Flora of the County Dublin. Flowering plants, higher Cryptogams
and Characeae. Hodges and Figgis, Dublin. 324 pp. (Supplement, 1961, published
by the National Museum of Ireland, 95 pp.)
Hart, H.C. (1898). Flora of the County Donegal. Dublin. 391 pp.
Scully, R.W. (1916). Flora of County Kerry. Hodges and Figgis, Dublin. 406 pp.
(Introduction describes geology and geography; pteridophytes and angiosperms.)
Webb, D.A. and Scannell, M.J.P. (1983). Flora of Connemara and the Burren.
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, and Royal Dublin Society, Dublin. 322 pp.
(History, climate, geology, vegetation description; gymnosperms, angiosperms and
cryptogams; illus.)
The Irish Biological Records Centre (address below) is preparing a national atlas to
illustrate the distribution of the 52 taxa protected by the 1976 Wildlife Act. Ireland is also
covered by Perring and Walters’ Atlas of the British Flora (1982, cited under U.K.).
Relevant journals: Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society; Irish Naturalists’
Journal; Journal of Life Sciences, Royal Dublin Society; Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy.
Field-guides Most of the field-guides covered under U.K. could be used in the
Republic of Ireland, since there are only a handful of plants that occur in the Republic and
not in the U.K. Those specifically covering Ireland include Fitter, Fitter and Blamey (1974)
and Page (1982), both cited under U.K.
Information on Threatened Plants No national plant Red Data Book or
published threatened plant list except for the schedule of protected plants (see ‘Laws
Protecting Plants’) and the section on Ireland in the list of rare species not to be collected,
in:
Richards, A.J. (1972). The code of conduct: a list of rare plants. Watsonia 9(1): 67-72.
(Lists 70 species for protection in Ireland; whole island.)
There is a protected species cultivation programme in Trinity College Botanic Gardens
(address below), to bring into cultivation the 52 nationally protected species. A seed bank
is also being set up. For details see:
Wyse Jackson, P. (1984). Irish rare plant conservation in the Trinity College Botanic
Gardens, Dublin. In Jeffrey, D.W. (Ed.), Nature Conservation in Ireland; Progress
182
Ireland
and Problems. Proceedings of a Seminar, 24-25 February 1983. Royal Irish
Academy, Dublin. 175 pp.
Ireland is included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983,
cited in Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - R:1;
non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:1, V:2, R:1 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (in press), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and Mammals
(excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community, which
included a data sheet on one Irish Endangered plant.
Laws Protecting Plants The Flora (Protection) Order of 1980, in accordance with
the Wildlife Act 1976, provides protection for 52 plant species throughout the State. Under
this Order, it is an offence to cut, pick, uproot or otherwise take, purchase, sell or be in
possession of any of these plants whether whole or part, or wilfully to alter, damage,
destroy or interfere with the habitat of these species. The list of 52 protected taxa is
currently under review by a sub-committee of the BSBI (address below). For a summary
see:
White, J. (1981). Irish plants - protection at last. BSBI News 27: 6-8. (Includes extract
from the 1976 Wildlife Act and lists taxa protected.)
The Forest and Wildlife Service (address below) is responsible for implementing and
enforcing the Wildlife Act, the main legislation relating to conservation.
Voluntary Organizations
An Taisce (The National Trust for Ireland), The Tailor’s Hall, Back Lane, Dublin 8.
Botanical Society of the British Isles - BSBI (Irish Branch), c/o Irish Biological
Records Centre (An Foras Forbartha), address below.
Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o Trinity College Botanic Gardens, Palmerston Park,
Dublin 6.
Irish Alpine Garden Society, c/o Ivanhoe, 28 Spencer Villas, Glasthule, Co. Dublin.
(One of its aims is the cultivation and conservation of endangered wild plants.)
Irish Wildlife Federation, 22 Grafton Street, Dublin 2.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Gardens, University College, Cork.
National Arboretum, John F. Kennedy Park, New Ross, Co. Wexford.
National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin 9.
Trinity College Botanic Gardens, Palmerston Park, Dublin 6.
Useful Addresses
Forest and Wildlife Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry, 2 Sidmonton Place,
Bray, Co. Wicklow.
Irish Biological Records Centre (An Foras Forbartha), St Martin’s House, Waterloo
Road, Dublin 4.
Wildlife Advisory Council, c/o Department of Fisheries and Forestry, Leeson Lane,
Dublin 2. (Representatives from many voluntary conservation bodies and
government agencies; appointed by the Government to advise the Minister for
Fisheries and Forestry about the workings of the Wildlife Act.)
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Wildlife Advisory Council, see above.
183
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Additional References
Doyle, J. (1958). Irish floristics since the I.P.E. of 1949. Verdff. Geobot. Inst. Riibel.,
Ziirich 33: 33-46. (I.P.E.: International Phytogeographical Excursion.)
Praeger, R.L. (1901). Irish Topographical Botany. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
410 pp.
Praeger, R.L. (1934). The Botanist in Ireland. Hodges and Figgis, Dublin. 587 pp.
(Physical and botanical descriptions; maps; black and white photographs; line
drawings; reprinted 1974 by E.P. Publishing, Wakefield.)
Webb, D.A. (1975). Floristic report for Ireland. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 615-622.
Webb, D.A. (1983). The flora of Ireland in its European context. The Boyle Medal
Discourse, 1982. J. Life Sc. R. Dublin Soc. 4: 143-160.
White, J. (Ed.) (1982). Studies on Irish Vegetation. Contributions from Participants in
the Vegetation Excursion to Ireland, July 1980. Organized by the International
Society for Vegetation Science. J. Life Sciences, Royal Dublin Society. 408 pp.
Papers include G.F. Mitchell on the influence of man on vegetation in Ireland,
pp. 7-14; J. White on a history of Irish vegetation studies, pp. 15-42; J. White on a
key for the identification of Irish plant communities, pp. 65-110; J. White and G.
Doyle on the vegetation of Ireland - a catalogue raisonné, pp. 289-368.
Israel
Area 20,705 sq. km
Population 4,216,000
Floristics 2317 native species; 155 are endemic (Shmida, 1984, pers. comm.).
Most of the endemics are found on the coastal plains in the transitional zone between the
Mediterranean and desert regions, and in the high mountains of the desert region. 800
species belong to the Mediterranean element, over 300 species to both the Irano-Turanian
and the Saharo-Arabian elements. In addition, there is a small Euro-Siberian element, and
a Sudano-Zambezian element occupying favourable sites in the south (Zohary, 1982).
Vegetation Most of the south covered by deserts. Sandy desert with Retama,
Artemisia and Stipagrostis in the western Negev and with Anabasis, Hammada and
Haloxylon in the Arava Valley. Stony desert with Artemisia, Gymnocarpos and
Zygophyllum scrub; open dwarf shrub steppes occupy large areas of the Judean Desert,
northern Negev and parts of the Mediterranean territory in the north. Evergreen forests
and maquis, dominated by Quercus calliprinos, throughout the Mediterranean territory,
with Pistacia, Crataegus, and Ziziphus steppe forests along its eastern and south-western
borders; deciduous Quercus/Pistacia forest in north and north-west (Zohary, 1982).
Checklists and Floras An up to date Flora of Israel is provided by Flora
Palaestina (1966- ). Also relevant may be the Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai (Post,
1932), and Eig, Zohary and Feinbrun-Dothan (1931); Israel will also be covered by the
Med-Checklist; all of these works are cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Zohary, M. (1976). A New Analytical Flora of Israel. Am Oved, Tel Aviv. 540 pp.
(Text in Hebrew.)
184
Israel
Field-guides
Duvdevani, S. and Osherov, S. (1969). Analytical Key for Identification of Wild and
Cultivated Plants of Israel by their Vegetative Characters. Massada, Tel Aviv.
254 pp. (In Hebrew.)
Feinbrun-Dothan, N. (1960). Wild Plants in the Land of Israel. Hakibbutz Hameuchad
and Massada, Israel. 185 pp. (94 species illustrated; text in English.)
Plitmann, U., Heyn, C., Danin, A., and Shmida, A. (1982). Pictorial Flora of Israel.
Massada, Givatayim. 338 pp. (Covers 750 species; text in Hebrew with English
preface; distribution maps.)
Shmida, A. and Daron, D. (in press). Field Guide to the Common Plants of Israel.
Keter Publ., Jerusalem.
Information on Threatened Plants A Botanical Information Centre - ROTEM
(the Hebrew word for the broom Retama raetam) - has a database on rare and endangered
plants of Israel. The Centre is a joint project of the Society for the Protection of Nature in
Israel and the Hebrew University Department of Botany, at Har-Gillo Field Study Centre,
south of Jerusalem. Apart from computer listings giving distributions and status of plants,
there is an Ecological Mapping Program which uses the Rotem database to produce
computer-generated maps of species distributions. In addition, the Nature Reserves
Authority are planning a Red Data Book of Israel, to cover flora and fauna.
Israel is included in the draft list for North Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN
Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980, cited in Appendix 1), but the coverage for
Israel is known to be very incomplete. The JUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978) has sheets
for Iris lortetii and Rumex rothschildianus.
Dafni, A. and Agami, M. (1976). Extinct Plants of Israel. Biol. Conserv. 10: 49-52.
Voluntary Organizations
Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel, 4 Hashfela Street, Tel Aviv 66183.
Botanic Gardens
Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Research and Development Authority, P.O. Box
1025, Beer Sheva.
Botanic Garden of Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv.
Botanic Gardens of the Hebrew University, Dept of Botany, Jerusalem 91000.
Botanical Garden ‘‘Mikveh-Israel’’, Holon.
Havath-Noy Garden, Ministry of Agriculture Research Post, Ruppin.
Useful Addresses
Nature Reserves Authority, 78 Yirmeyahu Street, Jerusalem 94467.
ROTEM, Har Gillo F.S.C. Sak Na’ul, Jerusalem 91999.
CITES Management Authority: Nature Reserves Authority, 78 Yirmeyahu Street,
Jerusalem 94467.
Additional References
Danin, A. (1983). Desert Vegetation of Israel and Sinai. Cana Publ. House, Jerusalem.
148 pp.
Gémez-Campo, C. (Ed.) (1985). Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean Area. (See in
particular L. Boulos on the arid eastern and south-eastern Mediterranean regions.)
Rabinovitz, D. (1981). Nature Conservation and Environmental Protection in the
Negev Desert. A Challenge for Israel in the 1980’s. Anglo-Israel Assoc. Pamphlet
no. 62. 16 pp.
Shmida, A. (in press). Endemism in the flora of Israel. Bot. Jahrb.
185
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Waisel, Y. and Alan, A. (1980). Trees of the Land of Israel. Division of Ecology, Tel
Aviv. 126 pp.
Zohary, M. (1959). Wild life protection in Israel (flora and vegetation). In Animaux et
Végétaux Rares de la Région Méditérranéenne. Proceedings of the IUCN 7th
Technical Meeting, 11-19 September 1958, Athens, vol. 5. IUCN, Brussels.
Pp. 199-202.
Zohary, M. (1962). The Plant Life of Palestine: Israel and Jordan. Ronald Press, New
York. 262 pp. (Includes useful vegetation map of Palestine.)
Zohary, M. (1982). Vegetation of Israel and Adjacent Areas. Reichert, Wiesbaden.
166 pp. (Includes vegetation maps, bibliography.)
Zohary, M. and Wood, H. (1975). Bouquet of Protected Wild Flowers. Nature
Conservation Authority, Tel Aviv. 79 pp. (Coloured plates of 37 species; text in
Hebrew.)
Italy
(Mainland)
Area 251,447 sq. km
Population 56,724,000
Floristics 4750-4900 native vascular species, for peninsula Italy only, according
to D.A. Webb (1978, cited in Appendix 1) estimated from Flora Europaea; endemic taxa:
142 (IUCN figure) principally based upon Flora Europaea; 712 endemics, including
subspecies and other infraspecific taxa, and including Sardinia and Sicily (Pignatti, 1982).
Central European element well-developed in northern Italy and south to the Apennines,
with the typical Mediterranean flora becoming dominant southwards. Areas of high
endemism concentrated in parts of the northern, central and southern Apennines and in
Calabria (S. Pignatti, 1984, in litt.). Elements: Mediterranean, Central European, alpine.
Vegetation Much of country modified by agriculture. Central European
vegetation of broadleaved and coniferous forests, with pines (Pinus sylvestris, P. cembra),
oaks and beech, along the foothills of the Italian Alps and in the Apennines. These once
extensive forests now largely modified by grazing and forest plantations or, in the north-
west, replaced by subalpine heaths. Alpine meadows abundant at higher altitudes; up to
4000 m in the Alps, and 2200 m in the Apennines. In the lowlands and coastal areas,
especially in the south, original cover of sclerophyllous forests (dominated by Pinus
halepensis) largely replaced by maquis and farmland. Almost all of the formerly extensive
wetlands have disappeared, although relict aquatic communities survive in the Po valley.
Checklists and Floras Italy is included in the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et
al., 1964-1980) and will also be covered under the Med-Checklist (both cited in Appendix
1). For a floristic bibliography see Hamann and Wagenitz (1977), cited in Appendix 1. The
most comprehensive and modern national checklist and Flora are:
Pignatti, S. et al. (1980). Check-list of the Flora of Italy, with Codified Plant Names
for Computer use. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome. 256 pp.
Pignatti, S. (1982). Flora d’Italia, 3 vols. Edagricole, Bologna. (1 - history of Floras,
ecology, gymnosperms, pteridophytes, dicotyledons; 2 and 3 - remainder of
angiosperms; line drawings and distribution maps for each species.)
186
Italy
Other works:
Baroni, E. (1969). Guida Botanica d’Italia, 4th Ed. Cappelli, Bologna. 545 pp.
(Revised by S. Baroni Zanetti; covers mainland Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Istria
and the French Riviera; illus.)
Fiori, A. (1923-1933). Nuova Flora Analitica d’Italia, 3 vols. Edagricole, Bologna.
(Covers mainland Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Pantellaria and nearby smaller
islets; 1 - pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms (Gramineae to
Leguminosae); 2 - Myrtaceae to Compositae; 3 - line drawings only, by A. Fiori
and G. Paoletti; reprinted 1969 and 1974.)
Zangheri, P. (1976). Flora Italica, 2 vols. Cedam, Padova. (1 - gymnosperms,
pteridophytes, angiosperms; 2 - line drawings.)
See also:
Moggi, G. (1975). Données disponsibles et lacunes de la connaissance floristique de
l’Italie. In CNRS (1975, cited in Appendix 1). Pp. 53-63. (Describes present
situation of floristic and systematic research in Italy; lists main herbaria and centres
of floristic study.)
Pichi Sermolli, R.E.G. and Moggi, G. (1975). Report on the progress of floristic
research in Italy since 1961. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 623-746.
A computerized floristic mapping scheme, under the direction of S. Pignatti
(Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Citta Universitaria I, 00100 Rome), is in progress.
Based essentially on Pignatti’s Flora d’Italia (1982), it will include species and distribution
data for the whole country, threatened plant data, biotopes containing threatened species
and areas of high endemism (Anon, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
Field-guides
Dalla Fior, G. (1963). La Nostra Flora (Guida alla Conoscenza della Flora della
Regione Trentino). Casa Editrice G.B. Monauni, Trento. (Not seen.)
Fenaroli, L. (1971). Flora delle Alpi Vegetazione e Flora delle Alpi e degli altri Monti
d’Italia, 2nd Ed. Aldo Martello, Milano. 428 pp. (Keys, colour and black and white
drawings.)
Fenaroli, L. and Gambi, G. (1976). Alberi: Dendroflora Italica. Museo Tridentino di
Scienze Naturali, Trento. 717 pp. (Trees - colour and black and white drawings;
photographs; maps.)
Rasetti, F. (1980). J Fiori delle Alpi. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Roma. 316 pp.
(Illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national plant Red Data Book. A
very preliminary threatened plant list was published in 1972:
Anon (1972). Specie della Flora italiana meritevoli di protezione (Gruppo di Lavoro per
la Floristica, Societa Botanica Italiana). Inform. Bot. Ital. 4(1): 12-13. List also in
Webbia 29(1): 361-363 (1974). (Lists 41 species in need of protection with
explanatory text in Italian, French, English and German.)
In 1971 and 1979, the Societa Botanica Italiana published 2 large volumes documenting
563 sites considered to be of high botanical interest and in need of conservation:
Pedrotti, F. et al. (Eds) (1971, 1979). Censimento dei Biotopi di Rilevante Interesse
Vegetazionale Meritevole di Conservazione in Italia, 2 vols. Societa Botanica
Italiana, Camerino. (Site details - description, threats, proposed protection, maps.)
See also:
187
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Corti, R. (1959). Specie rare o minacciate della flora Mediterranea in Italia. In
Animaux et Végétaux Rares de la Région Méditerranéenne, cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 112-129. (Brief distribution and status details on 65 threatened plant taxa.)
Filipello, S. (Ed.) (1981). Problemi Scientifici e Tecnici della Conservazione del
Patrimonio Vegetale. Proceedings of a conference, 18-19 December 1979, Firenze.
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pavia. 146 pp. (OPTIMA Leaflet No. 114.)
(Contains many relevant articles in Italian with English abstracts, e.g. S. Filipello on
plant species to protect (pp. 13-18); G.G. Lorenzoni on a census of vegetation types
under threat (pp. 39-46); A. Robecchi-Majnardi on plant and vegetation
conservation (pp. 33-37); F. Pedrotti on the conservation of wetland vegetation
(pp. 63-80); P.L. Nimis on a data bank for Italian flora and vegetation (pp. 83-86)
and F.M. Raimondo on Italian species in threatened biotopes (pp. 103-125).)
Filipello, S. and Gardini-Peccenini, S. (1985). The Italian Peninsular and Alpine
Regions. In Gdmez-Campo, C. (Ed.) (1985), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 71-88.
(Includes lists of threatened plants, species case-histories and details of laws and
protected areas.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics for mainland Italy, based upon this work: endemic
taxa - E:6, V:17, R:48, 1:5, K:16, nt:50; doubtfully endemic taxa - V:1, K:1, nt:2; non-
endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:4, V:34, R:38, I:4 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which included data sheets on 31 Italian Endangered plant species (including 8 in Sicily and
6 in Sardinia). The IUCN Plant Red Data Book includes 4 Italian threatened species.
For details of computerized threatened plant data see under Checklists and Floras.
Laws Protecting Plants There is no national legislation giving protection to wild
plant species except those regulating the collection of truffles and plants registered under
the official flora - plants of medicinal or traditional economic value. 13 out of 21 Regions
and Autonomous Provinces have passed local legislation to protect their flora, in
particular their rare or characteristic species. Moreover, Law No. 984 of 27 December 1977
obliged those regions who had not already done so to legislate for the protection of their
flora by 24 June 1978. Existing Regional and Provincial laws are:
Regional:
Abruzzo No.66 of 1980.
Basilicata No.42 of 22 May 1980
Emilia-Romagna No.2 of 24 January 1977.
Friuli-Venezia Giulia No.44 of 18 August 1972.
Lazio No.61 of 19 September 1974.
Liguria No.9 of 30 January 1984.
Lombardia No.58 of 17 December 1973.
Marche No.6 of 22 February 1973.
Piedmonte No.24 of 13 August 1974.
Umbria No.40 of 11 August 1978.
Valle-d’ Aosta No.6 of 8 November 1956 and
special decree no. 43 of
31 January 1957.
Veneto No.53 of 15 November 1974.
188
Ttaly
Provincial:
Bolzano No.13 of 28 July 1972.
Trento No.17 of 25 July 1973.
Bortolotti, L. (1975). Sulle leggi per la protezione della flora emanate dalle Regioni a
statuto speciale e ordinario dalle Province autonome. Boll. Soc. Bot. Ital. 7(2):
132-139.
Filipello, S. et al. (Eds) (1979). Repertorio delle Specie della Flora Italiana Sottoposte a
Vincolo di Protezione nella Legislazione Nazionale e Regionale. Consiglio Nazionale
delle Ricerche, Pavia. (Includes taxa protected at Regional and Provincial levels.)
Peyronel, B. (1973). Considerazione su una legge regionale per la conservazione della
flora: Italia. Inf. Bot. Ital. 5(2): 151-154.
Region Marche (Ed.) (1979). Flora Protetta delle Marche. Region Marche. 96 pp.
(Maps; illus.)
Region Veneto (Ed.) (1975). Fauna Inferiore Flora e Funghi Natura da Salvare. 71 pp.
(Describes 48 protected species; illus.)
Sonnino, P.F. (1975). Protezione delle flora alpina e legislazione. Natura e Montagna
(Italy) 22(2): 41-47.
Voluntary Organizations
Associazione Italiana per il World Wildlife Fund (WWF-Italy), Via P.A. Micheli 50,
00197 Rome.
Italia Nostra, Via N. Porpora 22, 00100 Rome.
Societa Botanica Italiana, Via La Pira, 4-50121 Firenze.
Botanic Gardens Numerous; outlined in Henderson (1983), cited in Appendix 1;
only those that subscribe to the Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body listed
here:
Ente Giardini Botanici Villa Taranto, 28048 Verbania Pallanza, Lago Maggiore.
Istituto e Orto Botanico dell’ Universita di Pavia, Via San Epifanio 14, 27100 Pavia.
Useful Addresses
Federazione Nazionale Pro Natura, Via Marchesana 12, 40124 Bologna.
Food and Agriculture Oganization of the U.N. (FAO), Via delle Terme di Caracalla,
00100 Roma.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Ministero dell’ Agricoltura e delle
Foreste, Direzione generale per 1’>Economia montana e per le Foreste, Divisione II,
Via G.Carducci 5, 00187 Roma.
Additional References
Filipello, S. (1979). Projets, problémes et aboutissements de la conservation de la flore
et de la végétation en Italie. In Proceedings of the 2nd OPTIMA meeting, 23-29
May 1977. Webbia 34(1): 63-69.
Societa Botanica Italiana (1975). Aufruf zum Schutze der Italienischen Flora.
Willdenowia 7(3): 537-538. (Lists 43 protected species.)
Toschi, A. (1959). Etablissement des réserves pour la protection de la faune et de la
flore en Italie. In Animaux et Végétaux Rares de la Région Méditerranéenne.
Proceedings of the IUCN 7th Technical Meeting, 11-19 September 1958, Athens,
vol. 5. IUCN, Brussels. Pp. 58-63.
189
Italy: Sardinia
Second largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily, c. 255 km long, 90 km wide, with
over 1200 km of coastline.
Area 24,090 sq. km
Population 1,594,175 (1981 census)
Floristics 1900-2000 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea. 27 endemic taxa (IUCN figures). Affinities with
flora of Corsica rather than Sicily. Flora entirely Mediterranean.
Vegetation Little natural vegetation, especially around the coast. Inland, a zone
of Holm Oak (Quercus ilex) is dominant, although much has been replaced by dry pastures
and on the lower ground it has largely been degraded to garigue. Natural formations of
thorny shrubs are widespread in mountainous areas (S. Pignatti, 1984, in /itt.).
Checklists and Floras See under Italy, and also a series of papers by different
authors (B. Corrias, P.V. Arrigoni, I. Camarda, M. Rafaelli and F. Valsecchi) in Boll.
Soc. Sarda Sci. Nat. entitled ‘Le piante endemiche della Sardegna’. Vols 16 (1977):
259-280, 287-313; 17 (1978): 177-225, 227-241, 243-328. (Reprinted in OPTIMA Leaflets
49-54 (1977) and 73-79 (1978); case-studies on individual taxa, with details of distribution
and ecology; maps; line drawings.)
Cossu, A. (1968). Flora Pratica Sarda. Gallizi, Sassari. 365 pp. (Includes distribution,
habitat and cultivation details; illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants See under Italy, and:
Arrigoni, P.V. (1971). Nuovi reperti di alcune species rare o notevoli della flora sarda
(New records for some rare or interesting species in Sardinia). Giorn. Bot. Ital.
105(4): 177-178.
IUCN statistics: endemic taxa —- E:5, V:3, R:10, K:1, nt:8; non-endemics rare or threatened
worldwide - E:2, V:5, R:6, I:1 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants See under Italy.
Additional References
Arrigoni, P.V. (1968). Fitoclimatologia della Sardegna. Webbia 23(1): 1-100. (English
summary.)
Camarda, I. and Valsecchi, F. (1984). Alberi e arbusti spontanei della Sardegna.
Gallizzi. 480 pp. (Illus.)
Italy: Sicily
Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean, is separated from mainland Italy to the
north-east by the 3-km straits of Messina.
Area 25,708 sq. km
Population 4,906,878 (1981 census)
190
Italy: Sicily
Floristics 2250-2450 native vascular species estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea. 41 endemic taxa (IUCN figures). Floristic diversity
and endemism highest in the north-west, especially the mountains of the Madonie and
Nebrodi area and the slopes of Mt Etna. A Mediterranean flora.
Vegetation Little natural vegetation. Most of the land cultivated. The forest
cover of Sicilian Fir (Abies nebrodensis), once almost continuous in the northern
mountain range, now confined to tiny fragments in the Madonie area; some broadleaved,
deciduous forest of oak, chestnut and beech in the Nebrodi and Madonie Mountains and
the northern slopes of the Rocca Busambra; maquis confined to the drier areas, especially
the lower slopes of the mountains. The volcanic Mt Etna (3323 m), in north-east Sicily,
supports oak, birch and chestnut forests, with fragments of beech (1000-1450 m), but
forest degradation widespread; at higher altitudes, Laricio Pine (Pinus nigra ssp. laricio),
giving way to low scrub communities rich in endemics e.g. Genista aetnensis; lower slopes
are heavily cultivated (Poli Marchese, 1984). For a vegetation map see Gentile ef a/. (1968).
Checklists and Floras See under Italy and:
Di Martino, A. and Raimondo, F.M. (1979). Biological and chorological survey of the
Sicilian flora. In Proceedings of the 2nd OPTIMA meeting, 23-29 May 1977.
Webbia 34(1): 309-335. (English summary.)
Information on Threatened Plants See under Italy.
Case studies have been written about individual threatened and endemic species, e.g. by
F. Garbari and A. Di Martino on Leopoldia gussonei in Webbia 27(1): 289-297 (1972).
(English summaries.)
IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:6, V:5, R:13, 1:4, K:3, nt:10; doubtfully-endemic taxa -
R:1, nt:1; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:3, V:5, R:9, I:1 (world
categories).
Laws Protecting Plants See under Italy.
Voluntary Organizations See under Italy.
Botanic Gardens
Istituto Botanico e Giardino Coloniale, Via A. Lincoln 2, 90133 Palermo.
Useful Addresses See under Italy and:
Istituto Sperimentale per la Selvicoltura, Viole S. Margherita, 80/82, 52100 Arezzo,
Italy. (Involved with a conservation programme for Abies nebrodensis.)
Additional References
Gentile, S., Tomaselli, R., Pirola, A. and Balduzzi, A. (1968). Carta della Vegetazione
Naturale Potenziale della Sicilia, 1/500,000. No. 40. Quaderni, Pavia. 114 pp.
Poli Marchese, E. (1984). Excursion au M. Etna (10 Juin 1983): une vue synthétique du
paysage végétal de l’Etna. In Proceedings of the 4th OPTIMA meeting, 6-14 June
1983, Palermo, Sicily. Webbia 38: 69-78.
Raimondo, F.M. (1983). On the natural history of the Madonie Mountains. In
Proceedings of the 4th OPTIMA meeting, 6-14 June 1983, Palermo, Sicily. Webbia
38: 29-61. (A floristic and ecological account with comments on conservation.)
Raimondo, F.M., Rossitto, M. and Villari, R. (1982). Bibliografia Geobotanica
Siciliana. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Palermo. 159 pp. (Includes algae,
lichens, bryophytes and angiosperms.)
191
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Riggio, S. and Massa, B. (1974). Problemi di conservazione della natura in Sicilia. 1.
Contributo. Atti IV Simp. Naz. Conservazione Nat. Bar. 2: 299-425. (Not seen.)
Ivory Coast
Area 322,463 sq. km
Population 9,474,000
Floristics 3660 species of vascular plants (Aké Assi, 1984); Aké Assi (1971) gives
4892 species; 4700 species (Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1); 2770 species in the forest
zone (Aubréville, 1959). 62 endemic angiosperms (Aké Assi, 1984); 41 endemic species
(Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1); 89 endemic taxa (IUCN figures, see below).
Floristic affinities predominantly Guinea-Congolian, but flora in north with Sudanian
affinities. Tai Forest (868 species, Aké Assi and Pfeffer, 1975) and Mt Nimba (shared with
Guinea and Liberia, 2000 species) are especially important floristically.
Vegetation Northern quarter covered by Sudanian woodland with Jsoberlinia.
Remainder of country lowland rain forest interspersed with secondary grassland and
cultivation; transitional rain forest (between lowland and montane) on Mt Nimba. Small
area of mangrove and swamp forest at coast.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 2900 sq. km/annum out of
44,580 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) quotes
coverage of primary moist forest to be 30,000 sq. km or less (World Bank), which is being
opened up at a rate of 4000-5000 sq. km/annum.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Ivory Coast is included in the Flora of West Tropical
Africa. The Ivorian portion of Mt Nimba is included in Flore Descriptive des Monts
Nimba. Both works are cited in Appendix 1.
Aké Assi, L. (1964). Contribution a l’Etude Floristique de la Céte d’Ivoire et des
Territoires Limitrophes. Lechevalier, Paris. 321 pp. (Annotated checklist with
extensive specimen citations; line drawings.)
Aké Assi, L. (1984). Flore de la Céte d’Ivoire: Etude Descriptive et Biogéographique,
avec Quelques Notes Ethnobotaniques, 3 parts in 6 vols. Thesis presented to
University of Abidjan. 1206 pp. (Part 1 - notes on families, genera, species;
numerous line drawings; part 2 - checklist of species; part 3 - analysis of the flora;
list of ailments and plants used in their cure; bibliography.)
Aké Assi, L. and Pfeffer, P. (1975). Inventaire Flore et Faune du Parc National de
Tai. BDPA/SEPN, Abidjan.
Aubréville, A. (1959). La Flore Forestiére de la Céte d’Ivoire, 3 vols. 2nd Ed. (1st Ed.
1936). Publication No. 15 of the Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-
Marne. (Keys, descriptions, broad distributions, line drawings.)
Guillaumet, J.-L. (1967). Recherches sur la Végétation et la Flore de la Région du Bas-
Cavally (Céte d’Ivoire). ORSTOM, Paris. 247 pp. (Includes vegetation map
1:1,000,000; 39 black and white photographs.)
192
Ivory Coast
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 89 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic - E:6,
V:36, R:17, nt:2, K:28.
Botanic Gardens
Laboratoire de Botanique, ORSTOM, B.P. 20, Abidjan.
Additional References
Adjanohoun, E., Aké Assi, L. and Guillaumet, J.L. (1968). La Cote d’Ivoire. In
Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 76-81.
Aké Assi, L. (1971). Progrés dans la préparation de la flore de la Céte d’Ivoire. In
Merxmiiller, H. (1971), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 27-29.
Lamotte, M. (1983). The undermining of Mount Nimba. Ambio 12(3-4): 174-179.
(Photographs, maps.)
Lanly, J.P. (1969). Régression de la forét dense en Cote d’Ivoire. Bois Foréts Trop.
127: 45-59.
Mangenot, G. (1971). Une nouvelle carte de la végétation de la Céte d’Ivoire. In
Merxmiiller, H. (1971), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 116-121. (With vegetation map
1:4,000,000.)
Jamaica
Jamaica lies south of the eastern extremity of Cuba, in the Caribbean Sea. 235 km long
and 82 km wide, it consists of coastal plains, divided by the Blue Mountain Range in the
east which reaches 2256 m, and hills and limestone plateaux in the centre and west.
Area 11,425 sq. km
Population 2,290,000
Floristics 3003 species of flowering plants, with 27.6% endemism (C.D. Adams
pers. comm., from Proctor, 1982); 579 species of ferns, 82 (13.5%) endemic (Proctor, in
press). In Bromeliaceae and Orchidaceae, both richly represented in Jamaica, endemism is
30.7% (Adams, 1972). i
Vegetation Much of lowlands cleared for agriculture; natural vegetation in
littoral mangrove swamps and salt pans; xeric woodlands, varying from cactus-thorn scrub
to high forest, on limestone; secondary woodland common on dry alluvial soils of
southern plains. Native forest, on the limestone hills and plateaux of the interior, modified
and receding steadily; the largest extent of natural forest is in the Cockpit Country in the
NW where 101 endemic species have been described. Some well-developed lower montane
rain forest on limestone in the John Crow Mountains, at the wet NE corner of the island;
extensive montane rain forest in the upper reaches of the Blue Mountains, steadily
receding; elfin woodland on the summits and ridges of the Blue and John Crow
Mountains. 44.9% forested (FAO, 1974, cited in Appendix 1); estimated rate of
deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 20 sq. km/annum, out of a total of 670 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Covered by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). The Flora is:
193
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Adams, C.D. (1972). Flowering Plants of Jamaica. University of the West Indies,
Mona. 848 pp.
See also:
Proctor, G.R. (1982). More additions to the Flora of Jamaica. J. Arnold Arbor. 63(3):
199-315. (115 native species further to Adams, 1972.)
Proctor, G.R. (in press). Ferns of Jamaica. British Museum (Natural History),
London.
Field-guides
Hawkes, A.D. and Sutton, B.C. (1974). Wild Flowers of Jamaica. Collins. 96 pp. (An
introduction and guide to 174 taxa, each illustrated.)
Information on Threatened Plants D.L. Kelly (1985, pers. comm.) estimates 363
endemic species, 48.8% of the total are rare, very rare or extinct; 90 of them are known in
recent times only from single sites and 40 only from old collections of which majority are
probably now extinct.
Proctor, G.R. Conservation of Jamaican plants: Partial list of endangered species.
Undated manuscript.
Threatened plant conservation is discussed in:
Howard, R.A. (1977). Conservation and the endangered species of plants in the
Caribbean islands. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 105-114.
Laws Protecting Plants Existing legislation:
Bark of Trees Act - regulation of commercial bark removal for specific species.
Forest Act - declaration of forest reserves.
Town Planning Act - declaration of Tree Preservation Orders.
Proposed legislation:
Wild Life Protection Act: redefinition of ‘Wild Life’ to include plants.
Trade Law: Inclusion of certain plants under various schedules to regulate export.
Voluntary Organizations
Jamaica Orchid Society, c/o Mr. A. Gloudon, 4A Wai Rua Road, Gordon Town,
St Andrew.
Natural History Society of Jamaica, c/o Institute of Jamaica, Duke St., Kingston.
Botanic Gardens
Bath Garden, Bath, St Thomas.
Castleton Gardens, St Mary.
Royal Botanic Gardens (Hope), Hope Road, Kingston 6.
The Hill Gardens, Cinchona, Hall’s Delight, St Andrew.
See:
Eyre, A. (1966). The Botanic Gardens of Jamaica. André Deutsch, London. 96 pp.,
16 plates. (A guide to the gardens, remarks on the areas in which they occur, and
their history.)
Useful Addresses
Department of Botany and Herbarium, University of the West Indies, Mona,
Kingston 7.
194
Jamaica
Forestry Department, 173 Constant Spring Road, Kingston 8.
Institute of Jamaica, 12 East Street, Kingston.
Natural Resource Conservation Division, Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment, P.O. Box 305, Kingston 10.
The Herbarium, Institute of Jamaica, Duke St., Kingston.
Additional References
Adams, C.D. (1971). The Blue Mahoe & Other Bush: an Introduction to Plant Life in
Jamaica. Sangster’s Bookstores Ltd., 97 Harbour Street, Kingston, Jamaica and
McGraw-Hill Far Eastern Publishers Ltd., Singapore. 157 pp.
Asprey, G.F. and Loveless, A.R. (1957). The dry evergreen formations of Jamaica.
J. Ecol. 45: 799-822.
Asprey, G.F. and Robbins, R.G. (1953). The vegetation of Jamaica. Ecol. Monog. 23:
359-412.
Grubb, P.J. and Tanner, E.V.J. (1976). The montane forests and soils of Jamaica: a
reassessment. J. Arnold Arbor. 57: 313-368.
Thompson, D.A., Bretting, P. and Humphries, M. (Eds) (in press). Forests of Jamaica.
Institute of Jamaica Publications.
Woodley, J.D. (Ed.) (1971). Hellshire Hills Scientific Survey 1970. University of the
West Indies and Institute of Jamaica. 168 pp.
Japan
Area 369,698 sq. km
Population 119,492,000
Floristics 4022 vascular plant species in 1098 genera (excluding Ogasawara-Gunto
and Ryukyu Retto); about 500 fern species (Ohwi, 1965). 1371 endemic species (based on
Ohwi, 1965, quoted in Nishida, 1972); many occur in the high altitude zones. Floral
elements from Siberia, Manchuria, Korea, southern China, Taiwan and Malesia.
Vegetation Subtropical broadteaved evergreen forest and warm temperate
broadleaved evergreen forest near south and east coasts, and in the lowlands of south-west
Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu; cool temperate broadleaved forest in low mountains and
highlands of the coastal hinterlands; subarctic coniferous forests on mountains higher
than 1400-1500 m, in the north, on Shikoku and in the lowlands of Hokkaido. Alpine zone
with scrub, grassland and rocky desert, above 2500 m in Central Honshu, above
1900-2000 m in the Tohoku district and above 1400-1500 m in Hokkaido. Many areas of
lowland vegetation, especially near coasts, cleared for agriculture and urbanization.
Checklists and Floras The principal Floras are:
Nakaike, T. (1982). New Flora of Japan. Pteridophyta. Shibundo, Tokyo. 808 pp.
(About 850 taxa described in Japanese; many photographs.)
Ohwi, J. (1965). Flora of Japan. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 1067 pp.
(Revised and extended English translation of Nihon Shokubutsu-shi, 1953 and Flora
of Japan - Pteridophyta, 1957, by the same author. Japanese revision, 1983, by
M. Kitagawa et al., published by Shibundo, Tokyo.)
See also:
195
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Hara, H. and Kanai, H. (1958, 1959). Distribution Maps of Flowering Plants in Japan,
2 vols. Inoue, Tokyo. (Dot maps of 200 taxa; endemics indicated.)
Horikawa, Y. (1972, 1976). Atlas of the Japanese Flora: An Introduction to Plant
Sociology of East Asia, 2 vols so far; 5 planned (according to Frodin). Gakken,
Tokyo. (Dot maps showing distribution and altitudinal range of 800 taxa; short
descriptions; vegetation map at scale 1:5,000,000.)
Kurata, S. and Nakaike, T. (Eds) (1979- ). Illustrations of Pteridophytes of Japan,
4 vols so far. Univ. Press, Tokyo. (Each volume describes about 100 taxa in
Japanese; distribution maps; photographs.)
Field-guides The following illustrated guides cover most of the flora; Japanese
text includes notes on distribution and habitats for each species:
Coloured Illustrations of Herbaceous Plants of Japan. Hoikusha, Osaka. Vol. 1 (1958)
by S. Kitamura, M. Hori and G. Murata (Sympetalae); vol. 2 (1961) by S. Kitamura
and G. Murata (Choripetalae); vol. 3 (1964) by S. Kitamura, G. Murata and
T. Koyama (monocotyledons).
Coloured Illustrations of the Pteridophyta of Japan (1962), by M. Tagawa. Hoikusha,
Osaka. 207 pp.
Coloured Illustrations of Wild Plants of Japan (1957-1959), 4 vols by S. Okuyama.
Seibundo-Shinkosha, Tokyo. (Line drawings, colour photographs, distribution
maps.)
Coloured Illustrations of Woody Plants of Japan (1973, 1979), 2 vols by S. Kitamura
and G. Murata. Hoikusha, Osaka. (Over 1200 taxa described, many illustrated.)
Satake, Y., Ohwi, J., Kitamura, S., Watari, S. and Tominari, T. (Eds) (1981). Wild
Flowers of Japan: Herbaceous Plants (Including Dwarf Subshrubs), 3 vols.
Heibonsha, Tokyo. (In Japanese.)
Shimizu, T. (1982, 1983). The New Alpine Flora of Japan in Color, 2 vols. Hoikusha,
Osaka. (About 800 taxa described in Japanese; keys in English; many colour plates.)
Takeda, H. and Tanebe, K. (1951). Illustrated Manual of Alpine Plants of Japan.
Hokuryu-Kan, Tokyo. 347 pp. (Short descriptions, line drawings of 432 species.)
Information on Threatened Plants Japan has no national Red Data Book. IUCN
has a preliminary list of endemic Japanese trees, including E:4, V:4, R:5. See also:
Shimizu, T. and Satomi, N. (1976). A preliminary list of the rare and critical vascular
plants of Japan, 2 parts. J. Fac. Liberal Arts, Shinshu Univ. Nat. Sci. 10: 3-16; 11:
43-54. (Annotated list of ferns, gymnosperms, monocotyledons and a number of
dicotyledons; distribution details for Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku.)
Laws Protecting Plants The conservation of plant life in Japan was first covered
by law under an act of 1919, which designated various plants as ‘‘national monuments’’.
This category also includes a number of natural forests and special plant communities. The
National Park Law and the Nature Conservation Law protect a number of plants and
vegetation types.
Voluntary Organizations
Nature Conservation Society of Japan, 2-8-1 Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105.
WWF-Japan, 6F 39, Mori Building, 2-4-5 Azabudai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106.
Botanic Gardens Japan has 106 botanic gardens, but none subscribe to the IUCN
Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body. For a full list of them see Henderson
(1983), cited in Appendix 1.
196
Japan
Useful Addresses
Biological Institute and Herbarium, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Shinshu University,
Matsumoto 390.
Japan Society of Plant Taxonomists, c/o Department of Botany, National Science
Museum, Hyakunin-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo.
TRAFFIC Japan, 6F 39 Mori Building, 2-4-5 Azabudai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106.
CITES Management Authority: Ministry of International Trade and Industry,
International Economic Affairs Division, International Economic Affairs
Department, International Trade Policy Bureau, 3-1, Kasumigaseki 1-chome,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo.
Additional References
Nishida, M. (1972). An outline of the distribution of Japanese ferns. In Graham, A.
(Ed.), Floristics and Palaeofloristics of Asia and Eastern North America. Elsevier,
Amsterdam. Pp. 101-105. (Discussion of distribution patterns, checklists of ferns of
various floral zones.)
Numata, M. (Ed.) (1974). The Flora and Vegetation of Japan. Kodansha, Tokyo and
Elsevier, Amsterdam. 294 pp. (Includes simplified vegetation map.)
Numata, M., Yoshioka, K. and Kato, M. (Eds) (1975). Studies in Conservation of
Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems in Japan. Part 1: Vegetation and its Conservation.
Japanese Committee for IBP. 157 pp. (Not seen.)
Johnston Island
Johnston Island (area 129.5 sq. km; population 327, 1980 census) is an unincorporated
territory of the United States, c. 1150 km WSW of Honolulu in the Pacific Ocean, at
latitude 16°45’N, longitude 169°31’W. There are 2 highly modified sand and coral islands
(Johnston and Sand Islands), and 2 completely man-made islands (Akau and Hikina).
No original vegetation remained on the atoll by 1946 due to military operations (Fosberg,
1949). A few species have arrived by natural means, but the majority have been
intentionally or accidentally introduced by man (Christophersen, 1931). 127 vascular plant
species have so far been recorded; no endemics (Amerson and Shelton, 1976).
References
Amerson, A.B. (1973). Ecological Baseline Survey of Johnston Atoll, Central Pacific
Ocean. Technical Report, Environment Programme, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C. 365 pp. (Plants on pp. 48-61.)
Amerson, A.B. and Shelton, P.C. (1976). The natural history of Johnston Atoll,
central Pacific Ocean. Atoll Res. Bull. 192. 479 pp. (Lists 127 vascular species;
origin and distribution within Johnston Atoll indicated.)
Christophersen, E. (1931). Vascular plants of Johnston and Wake Islands. Occ. Papers
Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 9(13). 20 pp. (3 vascular species recorded.)
Fosberg, F.R. (1949). Flora of Johnston Island, central Pacific. Pacific Science 3:
338-339. (Includes annotated checklist of 27 vascular plants.)
197
Jordan
Area 97,668 sq. km
Population 3,375,000
Floristics c. 2200 vascular plant species so far recorded from eastern Jordan, and
an additional 100-200 species likely to be found to the west of the Dead Sea (D.M. AI-
Eisawi, 1985, pers. comm.). No figure for endemics to Jordan; 150 species are endemic to
Palestine (Shmida, in press). The flora of Jordan has Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian,
Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian elements. The high plateaux of Edom in Trans-Jordan
include limestone and sandstone areas rich in endemics.
Vegetation About 88% is desert, less than 1% forested (Kasapligil, 1956). The
Jordan River Valley, a branch of the African Rift Valley system, divides Jordan into two
regions. The hilly West Bank area is mainly hammada (stony) desert supporting sparse
thorn scrub, particularly in the Upper Jordan Valley (Zohary, 1973, cited in Appendix 1).
The East Bank, and land to the east of the Dead Sea, is the edge of a high plateau which
supports dwarf shrub steppes with Artemisia, and deciduous steppe forests with
Amygdalus, Crataegus and Pistacia; Pinus halepensis and evergreen oak forests, with
Quercus calliprinos, to the north-east of the Dead Sea, between Irbid and Amman, above
700 m; deciduous oak forests, with Quercus aegilops at lower altitudes; juniper forests on
the southern mountains above 1000 m, greatly modified by overgrazing. Most of the area
further east is an extension of the Syrian and North Arabian Desert. There are extensive
areas of saline marshes to the north and south of the Dead Sea, with Tamarix, Salsola and
Atriplex.
Checklists and Floras The first volume of the Flora of Jordan by D. Al-Eisawi is
in preparation. 3-4 volumes are projected over a period of 10-15 years. A recent checklist
of the flora is:
Al-Eisawi, D. (1983). List of Jordan vascular plants. Mitt. Bot. Miinchen 18: 79-182.
(Covers mainly the area to the east of the Dead Sea; no distribution details.)
Part of Jordan is covered by the Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai (Post, 1932); Flora
Palaestina (1966- ); and Eig, Zohary and Feinbrun-Dothan (1931); the whole country will
be included in the Med-Checklist. All of these are cited in Appendix 1.
A number of papers in the series ‘Studies on the flora of Jordan’ have been published in
the journal Candollea since 1975, each describing new species or listing plants in a given
region. See in particular:
Boulos, L. (1977). Studies on the flora of Jordan, 5. On the flora of El Jafr-Batir
Desert. Ibid. 32(1): 99-110.
Boulos, L. and Al-Eisawi, D. (1977). Studies on the flora of Jordan, 6. On the flora of
Ras en Nagqb. Jbid. 32(1): 111-120.
Boulos, L. and Lahham, J. (1977a). Studies on the flora of Jordan, 3. On the flora of
the vicinity of the Aqaba gulf. Candollea 32(1): 73-80. (Includes annotated checklist
of 91 angiosperms.)
Boulos, L. and Lahham, J. (1977b). Studies on the flora of Jordan, 4. On the desert
flora north-east of Aqaba. Ibid. 32(1): 81-98. (Includes annotated checklist of 250
vascular plants, mainly collected in 1974 and 1975, in the area between Wadi Yutum
and Wadi Rum.)
198
Jordan
The series is to continue in Kew Bulletin; papers in press include D. Al-Eisawi on orchids
of Jordan.
Information on Threatened Plants Jordan is included in the draft list for North
Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat
(1980), cited in Appendix 1. Coverage for Jordan is very incomplete.
Voluntary Organizations
Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, P.O. Box 6354, Amman.
Useful Addresses
University of Jordan, Biology Department, Irbid.
CITES Management Authority: Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (address
above).
Additional References
Al-Eisawi, D.M. (1983). Vegetation in Jordan. Paper presented at the Second
International Conference on the History and Archaeology of Jordan. 20 pp. Mimeo.
Gomez-Campo, C. (Ed.) (1985). Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean Area. (See in
particular L. Boulos on the arid eastern and south-eastern Mediterranean regions.)
Kasapligil, B. (1956). Report to the Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of the
Jordan on an Ecological Survey of the Vegetation in Relation to Forestry and
Grazing. FAO, Rome. 39 pp.
Mountfort, G. (1966). Portrait of a Desert: the Story of an Expedition to Jordan.
Collins, London. 192 pp. (Mainly covers fauna.)
Nelson, B. (1973). Azraq: Desert Oasis. Allen Lane, London. 436 pp. (Physical
geography, vegetation, fauna.)
Shmida, A. (in press). Endemism in the flora of Israel. Bot. Jahrb. (Analysis of
endemism includes references to Jordanian flora.)
Zohary, M. (1962). The Plant Life of Palestine: Israel and Jordan. Ronald Press, New
York. 262 pp. (Includes useful vegetation map of Palestine.)
Zohary, M. (1983). Vegetation of Israel and Adjacent Areas. Reichert, Wiesbaden.
166 pp.
Juan Fernandez
The Juan Fernandez, or Robinson Crusoe Islands, consist of 3 precipitous volcanic islands
— Mas 4 Tierra (Isla Robinson Crusoe), Mas Afuera (Isla Alejandro Selkirk) and Isla Santa
Clara - situated in the South Pacific Ocean, 665 km west of Chile, between 33-34°S and
78-81°W. The highest point is El Yunque (916 m), on Mas a Tierra. The islands are
administered by Valparaiso province, Chile.
Area 93 sq. km
Population 650-700
Floristics 147 native species including 54 ferns (Skottsberg, 1920-1956); 118
endemic taxa (IUCN figures). 10 endemic genera (of which 5 in Compositae) and one
endemic family, the monotypic Lactoridaceae. Of the endemics, 50% are confined to Mas
4 Tierra, 33% to Mas Afuera. Chenopodium santa-clarae is restricted to Isla Santa Clara
(Perry, 1984).
199
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Vegetation The Juan Fernandez were originally covered by forests dominated by
Drimys, Fagara and Nothomyrica; however, the slopes of eastern Mas a Tierra below
100 m receive less rainfall and may have always been treeless. Throughout the islands,
native vegetation is now restricted to ridges and cliffs due to overgrazing and competition
from introduced plants (Sanders et a/., 1982). Remnants of temperate evergreen forest,
with tree ferns abundant on slopes above 500 m; cloud forest and alpine meadows above
700 m; secondary scrub with invasive Acaena, Rubus and maqui scrub (Aristotelia) up to
montane zone; the summit of El Yunque is covered by Ugni, Blechnum and Dendroseris
scrub. Santa Clara is mainly grassland. For sketch maps showing principal plant
communities see Skottsberg (1920-1956), vol. 2.
It is predicted that little of the flora will remain if nothing is done to reduce the abundant
introduced cattle, sheep, goats and horses. IUCN/WWF plan a rescue programme with
the Chilean authorities as part of the IUCN/WWF Plant Conservation Programme.
Although the islands were declared a National Park in 1935 and accepted as a Biosphere
Reserve in 1977, little has been done so far to save the flora.
Checklists and Floras
Nishida, H. (1979). Plants of the Robinson Crusoe Islands. Plant and Nature 13(2):
27-32; 13(4): 29-33, 35. (In Japanese.)
Skottsberg, C.J.F. (Ed.) (1920-1956). The Natural History of the Juan Fernandez and
Easter Island, 3 vols. Almqvist and Wiksell, Uppsala. (See in particular, 1: 193-438,
derivation of the flora and fauna; 2: 1-46, pteridophytes; 2: 95-240, phanerogams;
2: 763-792, supplement to the pteridophytes and phanerogams; 2: 793-960,
vegetation.)
Information on Threatened Plants 6 species are included in The IUCN Plant Red
Data Book (1978). See also Marticorena (1980), cited under Chile.
Perry, R. (1984). Juan Fernandez Islands: a unique botanical heritage. Envir. Conserv.
11(1): 72-76. (Lists 60 threatened endemic species giving distribution by islands.)
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:1 (Santalum fernandezianum), E:52, V:32, R:9,
Ted Kel -nt:6:
An index of threatened plants in cultivation is:
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1984). The Botanic
Gardens List of Rare and Threatened Species of the Galapagos and Juan Fernandez
Islands. Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body, Report No. 11. IUCN,
Kew. 6 pp. (Lists 14 rare and threatened taxa, from the Juan Fernandez Islands,
which are in cultivation, with gardens listed against each.)
Useful Addresses
Corporacién Nacional Forestal de Chile (CONAF), Av. Bulnes, 285 Santiago, Chile;
(park management), V Region, 3 Norte 541, Vina del Mar, Chile.
Additional References
Gutierrez, A., Mann, G., Merino, R., Thelen, K.D. and Dalfelt, A. (1976). Plan de
manejo Parque Nacional Juan Fernandez. Documento Técnico de Trabajo 22.
Proyecto FAO/RLAT tf-199. Santiago.
Hemsley, W.B. (1885). Report on the botany of Juan Fernandez and Masafuera. In
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the
Years 1873-76. Botany vol. 1, part 2. HMSO, London. Pp. 1-96. (Includes
annotated checklist of ferns and flowering plants; botanical history.)
200
Juan Fernandez
Kunkel, G. (1956). Uber den Waldtypus der Robinson-Insel. Forschungen und
Fortschritte 30(5): 129-137. (Forest types of Robinson Crusoe Island; notes on
distribution of indigenous plants.)
Kunkel, G. (1968). Robinson Crusoe’s Islands. Pacific Discovery 21: 1-8.
Munoz P., C. (1969). El Archipiélago de Juan Fernandez y la conservacion de sus
recursos naturales renovables. Bol. Acad. Cien. Instituto de Chile, Ser. 1(2): 83-103.
(Reprinted, 1974, in Serie Educativa. Museo Nac. Hist. Nat., Santiago 9: 17-47.)
Nishida, H. and M. (1979). The vegetation of the Mas a Tierra (Robinson Crusoe)
Island, Juan Fernandez. In Nishida, M. (Ed.), A Report of the Palaeobotanical
Survey to Southern Chile by a Grant-in-Aid for Overseas Scientific Survey, 1979.
Faculty of Science, Chiba Univ., Japan. Pp. 41-48. (Lists 55 taxa collected during
botanical survey 1976-1979, includes vegetation map.)
Sanders, R.W., Stuessy, T.F. and Marticorena, C. (1982). Recent changes in the flora
of the Juan Fernandez Islands, Chile. Taxon 31(2): 284-289.
Kampuchea
Area 181,940 sq. km
Population 7,149,000
Floristics No figure for size of flora or number of endemics.
Vegetation Closed broadleaved forests cover 71,500 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
About 40% of the forest cover is probably deciduous monsoon forest, including dry
dipterocarp and semi-evergreen dipterocarp forests, mostly in the north, and extensively
modified by burning. About 30% of the forest cover is hill evergreen rain forest, mostly in
southern uplands and along Annamite Chain (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Pine
forests on Kirikom Plateau; seasonally inundated ‘‘flood forest’? around Great Lake
(Legris, 1974). Much of Mekong Basin converted to rice cultivation.
Kampuchea’s forests have been greatly modified over many centuries; little can be
described as primary forest (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Estimated rate of
deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 250 sq. km/annum out of a total of 71,500 sq.
km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras No national Flora. Kampuchea is included in Flore du
Cambodge, du Laos, et du Vietnam (1960-) and Flore Générale de L’Indo-Chine
(1907-1951), both cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Additional References
Legris, P. (1974). Vegetation and floristic composition of humid tropical continental
Asia. In Unesco, Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources
Research 12. Paris. Pp. 217-238.
Vidal, J.E. (1979). Outline of ecology and vegetation of the Indochinese Peninsula. In
Larsen, K. and Holm-Nielsen, L.B. (Eds), Tropical Botany. Academic Press,
London. Pp. 109-123.
201
Kazan Retto
Kazan Retto, or the Volcano Islands, comprise 3 volcanic islands - Iwo Jima (18 sq. km),
Kita Iwo Jima (5 sq. km) and Minami-Iwojima (4 sq. km). The islands are c. 1250 km
south of Japan, of which they are a dependency. The highest point is 916 m, on Minami-
Iwojima. The population consists of personnel of the military base on Iwo Jima. Douglas
(1969, cited in Appendix 1) describes Minami-Iwojima as ‘‘practically inaccessible” and
“‘one of the least disturbed islands in the world’’. It was designated a Wilderness Area in
1975.
The natural vegetation is broadleaved evergreen forest, but much of that on Iwo Jima and
Kita Iwo Jima has been destroyed by military activities, or else cleared for settlements and
crops in the past. Minami-Iwojima, on the other hand, still has intact forest dominated by
Machilus kobu (H. Ohba, 1985, in litt.).
257 flowering plant species (including introduced species) of which 9 are endemic to Kazan
Retto and 33 are restricted to Kazan Retto and Ogasawara-Gunto (Ohba, in /itt.). Minami-
Iwojima has 118 vascular plant taxa of which 4 are endemic to the island and a further 5
are endemic to Kazan Retto (Ohba in Okutomi, 1982a). The flora is related to that of
eastern Asia and Ogasawara-Gunto.
No information on threatened plants.
References
Okutomi, K. (Ed.) (1982a). Conservation Reports of the Minami-Iwojima Wilderness
Area. Nature Conservation Bureau, Environment Agency of Japan, Tokyo. 403 pp.
(In Japanese with English summary. See in particular H. Ohba on vascular plants,
with floristic analyses and distribution maps of selected species, pp. 61-143; and
H. Okutomi, H. Ohba, N. Ishii, Y. Tsukamoto and M. Sato on the endemic flora
and fauna, pp. 393-403.)
Okutomi, K. (Ed.) (1982b). Science Report on Nature and Natural Resources in
Minami-Iwojima. Min. of Environment, Tokyo. 174 pp. (In Japanese.)
Kenya
Area 582,644 sq. km
Population 19,761,000
Floristics Just under 6000 species, plus about 500 ferns and fern-allies (J.B.
Gillett, 1984, pers. comm.); 8000-9000 species of flowering plant (Blundell, 1982), but this
estimate too high. Brenan (1978, cited in Appendix 1), from a sample of the Flora of
Tropical East Africa, estimates 265 endemic species, but that is probably an under-
estimate.
Largely within the Somalia-Masai region; the area from Lake Turkana and the Tana River
to the Ethiopian and Somalian border is especially rich in regional endemics. Coastal band
occupied by Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic; forest fragments, including some on
limestone, are remarkably rich, diverse, and of exceptional biological interest; recognized
as a major target for conservation effort. Afromontane region mostly on volcanic
mountains; not notably rich in local species. South-west of Kenya within Lake Victoria
202
Kenya
regional mosaic; Kakamega Forest is the easternmost part of the Guinea-Congolian rain
forest, and has distinct West African affinities.
Vegetation Most of the low and medium altitude parts of Kenya are covered with
bushland, with species of Acacia and Commiphora dominant, including some semi-desert
with many ephemerals and succulents. Vegetation nearer the coast lusher, with coastal
bushland, grassland, wooded grassland and small patches of evergreen and dry semi-
deciduous forest still remaining. Large expanses of wooded grassland, grassland and
cultivation surrounding the highland areas. High altitudes covered with forest and forest-
grassland mosaic, with clear altitudinal zonation from forest through bamboo thicket and
heath thicket to tufted grass moorland above about 3500 m.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 110 sq. km/annum out of
6900 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) gives a
figure of 16,702 sq. km total forest, of which 10,521 sq. km is primary moist deciduous
forest.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Kenya is included in the incomplete Flora of Tropical East
Africa. Kenya’s plants of high altitudes are listed in Afroalpine Vascular Plants (Hedberg,
1957). Both works are cited in Appendix 1.
Agnew, A.D.Q. (1974). Upland Kenya Wild Flowers: a Flora of the Ferns and
Herbaceous Flowering Plants of Upland Kenya. Oxford Univ. Press, London.
827 pp. (Excludes grasses and sedges; keys, short descriptions, representative
specimens, line drawings.)
Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. (1961). Kenya Trees and Shrubs. Buchanan’s Kenya
Estates, Nairobi. 654 pp. (Keys, short descriptions, representative specimens; 110
line drawings, 80 black and white photographs, 31 colour plates.)
Gillett, J.B. and McDonald, P.G. (1970). .A Numbered Check-List of Trees Shrubs and
Noteworthy Lianes Indigenous to Kenya. Govt Printer, Nairobi. 67 pp.
Field-guides A very useful key to families is included in Lind and Tallantire, (in
press), cited under Uganda.
Blundell, M. (1982). The Wild Flowers of Kenya. Collins, London. 160 pp. (Short
descriptions; 310 species illustrated by colour photographs.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List by J.B. Gillett for Kenya, pp. 93-94,
includes examples of taxa threatened in each of several major vegetation types, and
includes E:11, V:20, R:4, I:1.)
Mungai, G.M., Gillett, J.B., and Eagle, C.F. (1980). Plant Species in Kenya: Survival
or Extinction. Bulletin of Wildlife Clubs of Kenya, Nairobi. 6 pp. (Lists over 20
species as threatened.)
IUCN holds records of 44 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; most are
succulents. (E:15, V:16, R:3, 1:3.)
Data sheets are published in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978) of two species
occurring in Kenya and Tanzania, and of three species endemic to Kenya.
Botanic Gardens
Mazeras Nurseries, c/o Municipal Council of Mombasa, P.O. Box 90440, Mombasa.
Mutomo Hill Plant Sanctuary, Kitui.
203
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Nairobi Arboretum, The Chief Conservator of Forests, Forest Dept, P.O. Box 30513,
Nairobi.
National Museums of Kenya, P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi. (Surrounding grounds planted
with many named indigenous trees and shrubs.)
Voluntary Organizations
African Wildlife Foundation, P.O. Box 48177, Nairobi.
East Africa Natural History Society, P.O. Box 44486, Nairobi.
Kenya Orchid Society, P.O. Box 241, Nairobi.
Wildlife Clubs of Kenya Association, P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi.
Useful Addresses
East African Herbarium, P.O. Box 45166, Nairobi.
Environment Liaison Centre, P.O. Box 72461, Nairobi.
IUCN/WWFEF Programme Representative for Eastern Africa, c/o African Wildlife
Foundation, P.O. Box 48177, Nairobi.
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), P.O. Box 30148, Nairobi.
Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit (KREMU), P.O. Box 47146, Nairobi.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi.
CITES Management Authority: Wildlife Conservation and Management Dept, Ministry
of Tourism and Wildlife, P.O. Box 40241, Nairobi.
Additional References
Edwards, D.C. (1940). A vegetation map of Kenya with particular reference to
grassland types. J. Ecol. 28: 377-385. (With small-scale vegetation map.)
Kuchar, P. (1981). The Plants of Kenya: a Handbook of Uses and Ecological Status.
Technical Report Series, Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit, Ministry of
Environment and Natural Resources, Nairobi.
Lucas, G.LI. (1968). Kenya. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 152-166.
Trapnell, C.G. et al. (1966-1969). Kenya Vegetation, sheets 1-3 (maps 1:250,000).
Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, U.K.
Kermadec Islands
The Kermadec Islands (30°S, 178°30’W) are an outlying volcanic island group, in the
South Pacific Ocean. They are 976 km north-east of New Zealand, of which they are a
dependency. Raoul, or Sunday Island (34 sq. km), is the only inhabited island in the
group. It attains 520 m at the rim of the central crater. Curtis (0.5 sq. km) lies to the south
of Macauley (3 sq. km). The remaining islets are stacks and rocks scattered around the
main islands. The island group is now a Nature Reserve.
Area 33.5 sq. km
Population 10 (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1)
Floristics 195 vascular plant species of which 113 native (Sykes, 1977). Raoul has
c. 120 vascular plant species (Flora of New Zealand, 1961, cited under New Zealand); 23
endemic vascular plant taxa (figures quoted in Given, 198la, cited under New Zealand).
About 100 flowering plants and ferns on the Kermadecs are shared with mainland New
204
Kermadec Islands
Zealand; affinities also with Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands. 45 taxa are found in
Polynesia (Given, 1981a, cited under New Zealand).
Vegetation Coastal scrub on talus at the foot of cliffs; dry forest dominated by
Metrosideros, below 240 m; wet forest also dominated by Metrosideros with tree ferns, on
higher slopes. The islands are still volcanically active; crater floors almost unvegetated.
Checklists and Floras The Kermadecs are included in the Flora of New Zealand
(1961, 1970, 1980), cited under New Zealand. See also:
Sykes, W.R. (1977). Kermadec Islands Flora. An Annotated Checklist. DSIR Bulletin
no. 219. Wellington. 216 pp. (Enumeration of native and naturalized plants;
chapters on physical geography.)
Information on Threatened Plants Given (1976, 1977, 1978, cited under New
Zealand) includes 5 Kermadec endemic taxa, of which 4 are now Endangered and Hebe
breviracemosa is probably Extinct. Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:4, R:2,
nt:2.
Kiribati
Kiribati (area 684 sq. km; population 62,000) comprises the Gilbert Group (17 islands), the
Phoenix Islands (8) and the Equatorial (Line) Islands (8); mostly small coral islands and
atolls, many only a few metres wide and less than 6 m above sea level; spread over 5 million
sq. km in the south-west central Pacific Ocean. Banaba (Ocean Island), to the west of the
main Gilbert group, is an elevated limestone island reaching 81 m. Most of the islands are
uninhabitated. The Equatorial Islands and Banaba have been worked for guano.
Christmas Island has been greatly modified by testing nuclear weapons.
Floristics c. 100 vascular plant species recorded from the Gilbert Islands, of
which c. 60 are indigenous (Allerton and Herbst, 1973); most are widespread throughout
the Pacific. Fanning Island, in the southern Line Island group, has 102 taxa of which only
22 indigenous, including 2 endemic (St John, 1974). Vostok Island (0.25 sq. km), in the
northern Line Island group, has only 2 vascular plant species (Clapp and Sibley, 1971).
Vegetation Most of the natural vegetation of the larger islands (Cordia,
Tournefortia and Scaevola scrub) has been replaced by plantations of coconuts, breadfruit
and Pandanus. Some areas of Pemphis scrub and mangroves (Catala, 1957; Fosberg,
1973, cited in Appendix 1).
Checklists and Floras No complete Flora; the following checklists have been
published for individual islands:
Chock, A.K. and Hamilton, D.C. (1962). Plants of Christmas Island. Atoll Res. Bull.
90. 7 pp. (Lists 41 species.)
Christophersen, E. (1927). Vegetation of Pacific Equatorial Islands. Bull. Bernice P.
Bishop Mus. 44. 79 pp. (Includes annotated checklist for Palmyra, Line Islands.)
Clapp, R.B. and Sibley, F.C. (1971). Notes on the vascular flora and terrestrial
vertebrates of Caroline Atoll southern Line Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 145. 18 pp.
(Includes annotated checklist of 35 taxa, many widespread throughout the Pacific.)
St John, H. (1974). The vascular flora of Fanning Island, Line Islands, Pacific Ocean.
Pacific Science 28(3): 339-355.
205
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
The Gilbert Islands and Banaba are included in the regional checklists of Fosberg, Sachet
and Oliver (1979, 1982), cited in Appendix 1, and will be covered by the Flora of
Micronesia (1975- ), also cited in Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Additional References
Allerton, J.G. and Herbst, D. (1972, 1973). Report from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.
Bull. Pacific Tropical Botanic Garden 2(4): 63-68; 3(1): 2-6.
Catala, R.L.A. (1957). Report on the Gilbert Islands: some aspects of human ecology.
Atoll Res. Bull. 59. 187 pp. (Includes list of plants collected, including introductions
with notes on localities and uses.)
Christophersen, E. (1927). Vegetation of the Pacific Equatorial Islands. Bull. Bernice
P. Bishop Mus. 44. 79 pp. (Includes annotated checklist of vascular plants.)
Clapp, R.B. and Sibley, F.C. (1971). The vascular flora and terrestrial vertebrates of
Vostok Island, south-central Pacific. Atoll Res. Bull. 144. 10 pp.
Luomala, K. (1975). Ethnobotany of the Gilbert Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 213.
129. (List of plants with uses; arranged by vernacular names.)
Korea, Democratic People’s
Republic of
(NORTH KOREA)
Area 122,312 sq. km
Population 19,630,000
Floristics No figure for North Korea, but in the Korean Peninsula 2898 vascular
plant species (T.B. Lee, 1976). The Korean Peninsula has 407 endemic vascular taxa of
which 107 restricted to North Korea (Lee, 1983).
Vegetation Extensive mixed deciduous-coniferous forests between 700-1700 m
(Sun, 1974b). ‘Taiga’ forest in uplands with larch, pine, fir forests and scrub; lowlands
mainly cleared for cultivation. Alpine vegetation above 2000 m (Sun, 1974a).
Checklists and Floras
Lee, T.B. (1976). Vascular plants and their uses in Korea. Bull. Kwanak Arboretum 1.
137 pp. (Checklists and statistics of useful plants.)
Lee, T.B. (1983). Endemic plants and their distribution in Korea. Bull. Kwanak
Arboretum 4: 71-113. (Lists Korean endemic ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms;
notes on distribution.)
Lee, Y.N. (1966). Manual of the Korean Grasses (Excluding Bambuseae). Ewha
Womens Univ. Press, Seoul. 300 pp. (120 taxa described; notes on distribution.)
Lee, Y.N. (1976). I/lustrated Flora and Fauna of Korea. 18: Flowering Plants. 893 pp.
Samhwa, Seoul. (In Korean; appendix includes short notes in English on 889 taxa.)
Mori, T. (1922). An Enumeration of Plants Hitherto Known from Corea. Govt of
Chosen, Seoul. 546 pp. (Checklist of 2904 species, 506 varieties; endemics to Korean
Peninsula indicated; separate indices of Japanese and Chinese names.)
206
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of
Nakai, T. (1915-1939). Flora Sylvatica Koreana, 22 parts. Govt of Chosen, Seoul. (In
Latin and Japanese; all known woody species recorded for Korea listed before each
family treatment.)
Nakai, T. (1952). A synoptical sketch of Korean flora, or the vascular plants
indigenous to Korea, arranged in a new natural order. Bull. Tokyo Nat. Sci. Mus.
31. 152 pp. (Systematic list of 3176 vascular plant taxa, with summary.)
Park, M.K. (1975). Illustrated Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Korea, 16:
Pteridophyta. 549 pp. Samhwa, Seoul. (Descriptions with notes on distribution,
habitats; floristic summary and statistical table, includes 272 species.)
Uyeki, H. (1926). Corean Timber Trees, 1. Ginkgoales and Coniferae. Forestry Expt
Station, Govt of Chosen, Japan. (In Japanese, maps showing distribution in Korean
Peninsula.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Botanic Gardens
The Central Botanical Garden of DPRK, Pyongyang.
Additional References
Sun, C.I. (1974a). Taiga, a major flora community in our country. Korean Nature
2(33): 30-32.
Sun, C.I. (1974b). Coniferous-deciduous mixed forest zone, a major plant community
in our country. Korean Nature 3(34): 25-27.
Korea, Republic of
(SOUTH KOREA)
Area 98,447 sq. km
Population 40,309,000
Floristics No figure for South Korea, but Korean Peninsula has 2898 vascular
plant species (T.B. Lee, 1976). 407 taxa endemic to the Peninsula, of which 224 restricted
to South Korea (Lee, 1983).
Vegetation Warm temperate, broadleaved evergreen forests, with Quercus,
Camellia and bamboos, along southern coasts and on offshore islands; temperate forests
containing Quercus, Carpinus and Pinus densiflora in south; Quercus/Abies forest and
cold temperate Abies/Betula forest in north and at high elevations in Taebaek Mts.
Rhododendrons commonly found in understorey of all forest types (Hagman et al., 1978).
Forests cover about two-thirds of South Korea (Hagman ef al., 1978); about 25% is under
cultivation.
Checklists and Floras
Lee, T.B. (1973). Illustrated Woody Plants of Korea. Forest Expt Station, Seoul.
262 pp. (Short descriptions of 755 taxa, with line drawings and keys; in Korean.)
Lee, T.B. (1976). Vascular plants and their uses in Korea. Bull. Kwanak Arboretum 1.
137 pp. (Checklists and statistics of useful plants.)
Lee, T.B. (1979, 1982). Illustrated Flora of Korea, 2 vols. Hyangmunsa, Seoul. (Atlas
flora covering 3160 taxa with descriptions in Korean; no details of distribution or
ecology; not seen, citation based on Frodin.)
207
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Lee, T.B. (1983). Endemic plants and their distribution in Korea. Bull. Kwanak
Arboretum 4: 71-113. (Lists Korean endemic ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms;
notes on distribution.)
Lee, Y.N. (1966). Manual of the Korean Grasses (Excluding Bambuseae). Ewha
Womens Univ. Press, Seoul. 300 pp. (240 taxa described; notes on distribution.)
Lee, Y.N. (1976). Illustrated Flora and Fauna of Korea. 18: Flowering Plants. 893 pp.
Samhwa, Seoul. (In Korean; appendix includes short notes in English on 889 taxa.)
Mori, T. (1922). An Enumeration of Plants Hitherto Known from Corea. Govt of
Chosen, Seoul. 546 pp. (Checklist of 2904 species, 506 varieties; endemics to Korean
Peninsula indicated; separate indices of Japanese and Chinese names.)
Nakai, T. (1915-1939). Flora Sylvatica Koreana, 22 parts. Govt of Chosen, Seoul. (In
Latin and Japanese; all known woody species recorded for Korea listed before each
family treatment.)
Nakai, T. (1952). A synoptical sketch of Korean flora, or the vascular plants
indigenous to Korea, arranged in a new natural order. Bull. Tokyo Nat. Sci. Mus.
31. 152 pp. (Systematic list of 3176 vascular plant taxa, with summary.)
Park, M.K. (1975). J/lustrated Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Korea, 16:
Pteridophyta. 549 pp. Samhwa, Seoul. (Descriptions with notes on distribution,
habitats; floristic summary and statistical table, includes 272 species.)
Uyeki, H. (1926). Corean Timber Trees, 1. Ginkgoales and Coniferae. Forestry Expt
Station, Chosen. (In Japanese, maps showing distribution in Korean Peninsula.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Choi, K.-C., Kim, C.-H., Lee, Y.-N., Won, P.-O. and Yoon, I.B. (1981). Rare and
Endangered Species of Animals and Plants of Republic of Korea. Korean Assoc. for
Conservation of Nature. 293 pp. (Lists 118 plant taxa, including widespread non-
endemic species.)
Lee, T.B. (1980). Rare and endangered species in the area of Mt Sorak. Bull. Kwanak
Arboretum 3: 197-201. (Mentions 12 taxa with notes on distribution.)
Lee, T.B. (1984). Endemic and rare plants of Mt. Sorak. Bull. Kwanak Arboretum 5:
1-6. (Enumeration of 114 vascular plant taxa of which 65 are endemic; 5 taxa are
‘endangered’, 12 taxa are ‘rare’.
Preliminary IUCN statistics, mainly based on Choi et a/. (1981), cited above: endemic taxa
- Ex:1, E:8, V:2, R:20.
Laws Protecting Plants The Cultural Properties Protection Law (1973) provides
protection for a number of plant species and their habitats by designating them as natural
monuments. The law covers 13 taxa at the northern limit of their distribution, and 6
endemic and threatened taxa (T.B. Lee, 1984, in /itt.).
Voluntary Organizations A committee has been set up to protect the natural
habitat of Abeliophyllum (Lee, in litt.).
Botanic Gardens
Chollipo Arboretum, Uihangni 1-gu, Sosan Gun, Chungchong Namdo.
Hongnung Arboretum, Forest Research Institute, Chongnyangni, Tongdaemun-gu,
Seoul.
Kumkang Botanic Garden, San 43-1, Changjon 2-Dong, Tongnaegu, Pusan.
Kwanak Arboretum, College of Agriculture, Seoul National University, Suwon.
Useful Addresses
Forest Research Institute, Chung-Ryang-Ri, Tong dae mun-Ku, Seoul.
208
Korea, Republic of
Additional References
Hagman, M., Feilberg, L., Lagerstrém, T. and Sanda, J.E. (1978). The Nordic
Arboretum Expedition to South Korea 1976. Forest Research Institute, Helsinki.
102 pp. (Expedition report, useful background notes on vegetation, forestry
research in South Korea.)
Lee, T.B. (1980). Conservation of threatened plants in Korea. Bull. Kwanak
Arboretum 3: 190-196. (Includes notes on plant re-introductions; summary in
English.)
Kuwait
Area 24,281 sq. km.
Population 1,703,000
Floristics About 300 species of vascular plants estimated (quoted in Dickson,
1955); Halwagy and Macksad (1972) record a further 56 species not previously known
from Kuwait. Affinities with the flora of Iraq.
Vegetation Mostly sparse scrub with perennial herbs and ephemerals; in the
south-east and north-west, principally of the Chenopod Haloxylon salicornicum, in the
west of the dwarf shrub Rhantherium epapposum, and immediately south and south-west
of Kuwait City a zone dominated by the sedge Cyperus conglomeratus (Halwagy, 1974).
Checklists and Floras The late Professor Daoud prepared a Flora of Kuwait, now
partly in press, edited by Ali al-Rawi (T.A. Cope, 1984, pers. comm.). Works relating to
the Arabian peninsula as a whole are outlined under Saudi Arabia. See also:
Burtt, B.L. and Lewis, P. (1949-1954). On the Flora of Kuweit. Kew Bull. 4: 273-308
(1949); 7: 333-352 (1952); 9: 377-410 (1954).
Deeb, M. and Salim, K. (1974). Wild and Ornamental Plants of Kuwait. Kuwait. (In
Arabic.)
Dickson, V. (1955). The Wild Flowers of Kuwait and Bahrain. Allen and Unwin,
London. 144 pp. (Notes on species; some illustrated.)
Dickson, V. and Macksad, A. (1973). Plants of Kuwait. Ahmadi Natural History and
Field Studies Group, Kuwait. 13 pp. (Computer checklist of 395 plant names.)
Halwagy, R. and Macksad, A. (1972). A contribution towards a Flora of the State of
Kuwait and the Neutral Zone. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 65: 61-79. (Lists 100 species of
flowering plants.)
Field-guides
Husain, S.M. and Mirza, J.H. (1979). A Field Key for the Identification of Common
Trees, Shrubs and Climbers of Kuwait. Newsletter Supplement No. 1, Botany and
Microbiology Dept, Univ. of Kuwait. 21 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Voluntary Organizations
Ahmadi Natural History and Field Studies Group, c/o Kuwait Oil Co., Ahmadi-103.
Useful Addresses
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 24885, Safat, Kuwait.
209
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Additional References
Clayton, D. and Pilcher, C. (Eds) (1983). Kuwait’s Natural History. An Introduction.
Kuwait Oil Company. 351 pp. (Fully illustrated with colour photographs. See
especially chapters by L. Corrall on Vegetation, pp. 24-66, and by C. Pilcher on
Conservation, pp. 294-316.)
Halwagy, R. and M. (1974, 1977). Ecological studies on the desert of Kuwait; I: The
physical environment. J. Univ. Kuwait (Science) 1: 75-86 (1974); II: the vegetation.
Ibid. 1: 87-95 (1974); III: the vegetation of the coastal salt marshes. Ibid. 4: 33-74.
Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep, formerly the Laccadive Islands, are a group of 19 coral atolls north of the
Maldives and c. 300 km off the Malabar coast of southern India. They are administered as
a Union Territory of the Republic of India. Area 32 sq. km. 10 islands inhabited;
population 40,237 (1981 census, Times Atlas, 1983).
348 vascular plant species recorded (Raghavan, 1977). The flora is related to that of the
Maldives and Pacific Ocean atolls, rather than to that of the west coast of India.
According to Prain (1893) and Willis (1901) there are no endemics; many species have
pantropical and Indo-Pacific distributions. Apart from planted coconuts the vegetation of
most of the islands consists of littoral communities, with Casuarina, Pandanus and
Terminalia scrub. 3 islets are open reefs with no vascular plants.
References
Prain, D. (1892, 1893). Botany of the Laccadives. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 7:
268-295; 7: 460-486. (Introduction in first part; second part includes annotated
checklist of 121 species of which 40 indigenous.)
Raghavan, R.S. (1977). Floristic studies in India - the Western Circle. Bull. Bot.
Survey India 19: 95-108.
Sivadas, P., Narayanan, B. and Sivaprasad, K. (1983). An account of the vegetation of
Kavaratti Island, Laccadives. Atoll Res. Bull. 266. 9 pp. (Includes checklist of 117
plants on Kavaratti.)
Wadhwa, B.M. (1961). Additions to the flora of Laccadives, Minicoy and Aminidives
groups of islands. Bull. Bot. Survey India 3: 407-408. (Notes on 11 species in
Cyperaceae and Gramineae.)
Willis, J.C. (1901). Note on the flora of Minikoi. Annals Royal Botanic Gardens
Peradeniya 1: 39-43. (Lists 134 species for Minicoy Island.)
Willis, J.C. and Gardiner, J.S. (1901). The botany of the Maldive Islands. Annals
Royal Botanic Gardens Peradeniya 1: 45-164. (Includes annotated checklist of 359
species recorded from Chagos Archipelago, Laccadives and Maldives.)
Laos
Area 236,725 sq. km
Population 4,315,000
210
Laos
Floristics No figure for size of flora or number of endemics. Laos, Kampuchea
and Viet Nam have c. 600 fern species (Parris, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
Vegetation 27,000 sq. km of tropical lowland and hill evergreen rain forest,
mainly along the Annamite Chain, the Sekong Valley bordering the Bolovens Plateau, and
a few patches along the Mekong River; above 1000 m these forests have been extensively
converted to grasslands (Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1); dry dipterocarp and mixed
deciduous forests (with dipterocarps and teak) in south and between Vientiane and
Burmese border; 10,000 sq. km of pine forests in the Xieng Khouang region and on sandy
soils between 600-1400 m, greatly damaged by military activity; bamboo forests estimated
at 6000 sq. km (Myers, 1980).
Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forests 1000 sq. km/annum out of a
total of 75,600 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Myers (1980) quotes a UNDP/UNIDO
estimate for ‘‘well-stocked forests’’ of only(46,000 sq. km. Few areas of forest remain
undisturbed; much has been converted to grasslands.
Checklists and Floras No national Flora. Laos is included in Flore du Cambodge,
du Laos, et du Vietnam (1960- ), and Flore Générale de L’Indo-Chine (1907-1951), both
cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Seidenfaden, G. (1972). An enumeration of Laotian orchids. Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist.
Naturelle Bot. 71: 101-152. (Enumeration of about 316 species.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Additional References
Legris, P. (1974). Vegetation and floristic composition of humid tropical continental
Asia. In Unesco, Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources
Research 12. Paris. Pp. 217-238.
Vidal, J. (1934-1960). La végétation du Laos. Trav. Lab. For. Toulouse Tome 5, sect.
1, vol. 1. (Part 1 - 103 pp.; part 2 - 582 pp.)
Vidal, J.E. (1979). Outline of ecology and vegetation of the Indochinese Peninsula. In
Larsen, K. and Holm-Nielset., L.B. (Eds), Tropical Botany. Academic Press,
London. Pp. 109-123.
ts
Lebanon
Area 10,400 sq. km
Population 2,644,000
Floristics No figure for Lebanon, but Syria and Lebanon together have about
3000 species; 11% of the flora of Syria and Lebanon is endemic (Zohary, 1973, cited in
Appendix 1). In Lebanon, many endemics are confined to the high mountains of the
Mediterranean zone in the west.
Vegetation Steppes and deserts cover most of Lebanon. There is a narrow coastal
plain along the Mediterranean Sea, with evergreen maquis; further inland are the Lebanon
Mountains, which rise to 3086 m. The western slopes up to 300 m support evergreen
maquis, with Quercus calliprinos, Ceratonia and Pistacia; Pinus halepensis forest
(replaced by P. brutia in north) from sea-level to 1200 m, now reduced to remnants; forests
with Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon), Pinus nigra and Quercus calliprinos, particularly
211
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
between 1400-1800 m in the north. The oldest and most famous pure stands of C. libani
are at Bsharri. The alluvial plains of the Beqaa Valley separate the Lebanon Mountains
from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in the east, which reach 2814 m at Mt Hermon. The
Anti-Lebanon Mountains have Amygdalus/Pistacia scrub, and fragmented deciduous
forests on their western slopes. There are also remnants of steppe/coniferous forests with
Abies cilica, Cedrus libani and Juniperus excelsa. Subalpine and alpine communities occur
above 2500 m in Lebanon. For detailed description of vegetation see Zohary (1973), cited
in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Lebanon will be covered by the Med-Checklist, cited in
Appendix 1. See also:
Bouloumoy, L. (1930). Flore du Liban et de la Syrie, 2 vols. Vigot Freres, Paris. (1 -
keys; 2 - plates.)
Mouterde, P. (1966- ). Nouvelle Flore du Liban et de la Syrie, 3 vols so far. Dar El-
Machreg, Beirut. (Vols 1-2 - pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocotyledons and
dicotyledons to Umbelliferae and Cornaceae; 3 - so far 3 fascicles, including
Ericaceae, Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae. In addition there are 2 supplementary
volumes with line drawings.)
Mouterde, P. (1973). Novitates florae libano-syriacae. Saussurea 4: 17-25. (17 new
species and 2 varieties described from Lebanon and Syria.)
Thiébaut, J. (1936-1953). Flore Libano-Syrienne, 3 vols. Centre National de la
Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
Information on Threatened Plants None. The section on Lebanon in the draft list
for North Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN Threatened Plants Committee
Secretariat (1980), cited in Appendix 1, contains only 41 endemic species without
categories. The list was taken from Mouterde (1966- ), cited above.
Additional References
Charpin, A. and Greuter, W. (1975). Données disponibles concernant la flore de la
Syrie et du Liban. In CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 115-117.
Gomez-Campo, C. (Ed.) (1985), cited in full in Appendix 1.
Lesotho
Area 30,344 sq. km
Population 1,481,000
Floristics 1591 vascular species (Jacot Guillarmod, 1971), predominantly
herbaceous; one or two endemic species only.
Flora predominantly Afromontane, but lower altitude land in west in Kalahari-Highveld
region.
Vegetation Predominantly montane grassland, with woody montane
communities in sheltered valleys and south-facing slopes; communities with ericoid shrubs
at highest altitudes. Most available lower altitude land under cultivation.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
212
Lesotho
Checklists and Floras Lesotho is included in the incomplete Flora of Southern
Africa, and in The Genera of Southern African Flowering Plants (Dyer, 1975, 1976), both
cited in Appendix 1. The national Flora is:
Jacot Guillarmod, A. (1971). Flora of Lesotho (Basutoland). Cramer, Lehre. 474 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants
Hall, A.V. et al. (1980), cited in Appendix 1. (List on pp. 85-86 contains one endemic
species: Kniphofia hirsuta, V, and 6 non-endemic species: V:1 (regional category),
R:3, K:2.)
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Lesotho, p. 101, by A. Jacot
Guillarmod, contains five species and three genera: E:6, R:1, I:1.)
Talukdar, S. (1983). The conservation of Aloe polyphylla endemic to Lesotho. In
Killick, D.J.B. (1983), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 985-989. (Gives details of
conservation status and protective legislation.)
Information on Aloe polyphylla is included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Laws Protecting Plants Legal Notice No. 36 of 1969 defines the monuments,
relics, fauna and flora protected under Act 41 of 1967 (Historical Monuments, Relics,
Fauna and Flora Act). The list of protected plants includes all aloes and specifically
A. polyphylla.
Additional References
Bawden, M.G. and Carroll, D.M. (1968). The Land Resources of Lesotho. Land
Resource Study 3. Directorate of Overseas Surveys, Tolworth, U.K. 89 pp. (With
vegetation map 1:1,000,000.)
Jacot Guillarmod, A. (1968). Lesotho. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 253-256.
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Liberia
Area 111,370 sq. km
Population 2,123,000
Floristics Size of flora unknown. 59 endemic species and 1 endemic genus
(Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1).
Floristic affinities Guinea-Congolian. Mt Nimba, shared with Guinea and Ivory Coast,
has an Afromontane element and is especially important floristically, with more than 2000
species.
Vegetation Small areas of mangrove along coast. Coastal strip of lowland rain
forest interspersed with secondary grassland and cultivation; transitional rain forest
(between lowland and montane) on Mt Nimba. Remainder of country predominantly
covered with lowland rain forest.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 460 sq. km/annum out of
20,000 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) quotes
the following figures: 25,000 sq. km primary forest, plus an additional 23,000 sq. km
213
Planis in Danger: What do we know?
broken forest; primary forest is degraded by shifting cultivators at 300 sq. km/annum, and
by logging at 2000 sq. km/annum.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Liberia is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa.
The Liberian portion of Mt Nimba is included in Flore Descriptive des Monts Nimba. Both
works are cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Kunkel, G. (1965). The Trees of Liberia: Field Notes on the More Important Trees of
the Liberian Forests and a Field Identification Key. Report No. 3, German Forestry
Mission to Liberia, Munich. 270 pp. (Illustrations, map.)
Voorhoeve, A.G. (1979). Liberian High Forest Trees, 2nd Ed. (ist Ed. 1965). Centre
for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen. 416 pp. (Extensive
notes on the 75 most important or frequent high forest trees; 72 line drawings, 32
black and white photographs.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (Includes short list of example species and
genera, p. 88, by J.M. Thorne.)
IUCN has records of 103 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic, including
E:2, V:10, R:5, 1:5; the remainder are K.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Forestry Development Authority, P.O. Box 3010,
Monrovia.
CITES Scientific Authority: University of Liberia, Capitol Hill, Monrovia.
Additional References
Adam, J.-G. (1970). Etat actuel de la végétation des monts Nimba au Libéria et en
Guinée. Adansonia, Sér. 2, 10: 193-211. (With 10 black and white photographs.)
Cooper, G.P. and Record, S.J. (1931). The Evergreen Forests of Liberia. Bulletin 31 of
the Yale Univ. School of Forestry, New Haven. 153 pp. (Includes 26 black and
white photographs.)
Lamotte, M. (1983). The undermining of Mount Nimba. Ambio 12(3-4): 174-179.
(Photographs, maps.)
Voorhoeve, A.G. (1968). Liberia. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 74-76.
Libya
Area 1,759,540 sq. km
Population 3,471,000
Floristics c. 1600 species of which about 90% (1440) occupy the coastal region,
especially Jabal al Akhdar (Boulos, 1975); c. 1800 species (Le Houérou, 1975). Northern
Cyrenaica has 134 endemics, of which 109 are endemic to Jabal al Akhdar (Bartolo et al.,
1977); IUCN has records of 83 species and infra-specific taxa believed to be endemic.
214
Libya
Floristic affinities Mediterranean and Saharan, although Jabal al Akhdar is the only area
with a typical Mediterranean flora. The flora of most of the country is small and has
Saharan affinities. Other coastal areas have a flora transitional between the two.
Vegetation Mostly desert with little or no perennial vegetation; the only non-
desert vegetation is in a strip along the coast and has been cultivated and overgrazed with
the result that very little natural vegetation survives except in a somewhat degraded form in
the sclerophyllous forests of Jabal al Akhdar.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Libya is included in the incomplete Flore de l’Afrique du
Nord, the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980), Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and is being covered in
Med-Checklist; all of these are cited in Appendix 1. Below is the recent Flora, and up-to-
date checklists:
Ali, S.I., Jafri, S.M.H. and El-Gadi, A. (Eds) (1976- ). Flora of Libya. Al Faateh
University, Tripoli. (86 families published so far: mostly small ones, but including
Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Liliaceae and Brassicaceae.)
Boulos, L. (1977-1980). A checklist of the Libyan flora. 1. Introduction and
Adiantaceae to Orchidaceae. Publ. Cairo Univ. Herb. 7/8: 115-141; 2. Salicaceae to
Neuradaceae. Candollea 34(1): 21-48; 3. Compositae (by C. Jeffrey). Ibid. 34(2):
307-332; corrections (1980). Ibid. 35(2): 565-567.
Also published:
Brullo, S. and Furnari, F. (1979). Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on the Flora of
Cyrenaica (Libya). Webbia 34(1): 155-174.
Keith, H.G. (1965). A Preliminary Check List of Libyan Flora, 2 vols. Ministry of
Agriculture and Agrarian Reform, Govt of Libyan Arab Republic. 1047 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants Libya is included in the draft list for North
Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat
(1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Boulos, L. (1985). The arid eastern and south-eastern Mediterranean regions. In
Gomez-Campo, C. (Ed.), Plant conservation in the Mediterranean area.
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:2, V:18, R:18, 1:4, K:20, nt:21; non-endemics
rare or threatened on a world scale - E:1, V:7, R:6 (world categories).
Botanic Gardens
Sidi Mesri Experiment Station, Tripoli.
Additional References
Bartolo, G., Brullo, S., Guglielmo, A. and Scalia, C. (1977). Considerazioni
fitogeografiche sugli endemismi della Cirenaica settentrionale. Archiv. Bot.
Biogeogr. Ital. 53(3-4): 131-154.
Boulos, L. (1972). Our present knowledge on the flora and vegetation of Libya:
bibliography. Webbia 26: 365-400.
Boulos, L. (1975). The Mediterranean element in the flora of Egypt and Libya. In
CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 119-124.
Le Houérou, H.-N. (1975). Etude préliminaire sur la compatibilité des flores nord-
africaine et palestinienne. In CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 345-350.
215
Liechtenstein
The principality of Liechtenstein is situated in the European Alps between Austria and
Switzerland. One-third of the country lies in the Upper Rhine valley; the rest is
mountainous.
Area 160 sq. km
Population 27,000
Floristics Over 1400 native vascular taxa (estimated from Seitter, 1977).
Elements: Central European, alpine.
Vegetation About 25% of the country is agricultural; semi-natural and
plantation forests occupy c. 34%; alpine pastures c. 16%. Widespread drainage, intensive
agriculture and urban expansion responsible for dramatic loss, in recent years, of
wetlands, woodlands and alpine pastures (Anon, 1984, cited in Appendix 1 and Broggi,
1977).
Checklists and Floras National Flora:
Seitter, H. (1977). Die Flora des Fiirstentums Liechtenstein. Botanisch-Zoologische
Gesellschaft, Liechtenstein. 573 pp. (In German; no keys; line drawings and colour
photographs.)
Regional Floras:
Garcke, A. et al. (1972). Illustrierte Flora, Deutschland und Angrenzende Gebiete, 23rd
Ed. by K. von Weihe. Parey, Berlin. 1607 pp. (Line drawings.)
Hess, H.E., Landolt, E. and Hirzel, R. (1967- ). Flora der Schweiz und angrenzender
Gebiete, 3 vols to date. Birkhauser, Basel. (Covers all Switzerland and Liechtenstein
and parts of Austria, France, Federal Republic of Germany and Italy; 1 -
pteridophytes and dicotyledons; 2 and 3 - dicotyledons and monocotyledons; line
drawings, and detailed historical and ecological introduction.)
Relevant journal: Mitteilungen der Botanisch Zoologischen Gesellschaft Liechtenstein,
Sargans Werdenberg.
Field-guides See Grey-Wilson (1979) and Hegi (1935-1979), both cited in
Appendix 1.
Information on Threatened Plants A national plant Red Data Book has recently
been published (reviewed in Oryx 19: 112) identifying 383 rare and threatened flowering
plant taxa of which 68 are ‘extinct’, 102 ‘endangered’, 91 ‘threatened’ and 122 ‘rare’;
about one quarter of these are marshland plants.
Laws Protecting Plants The 1933 Nature Protection Law, revised 1966, (Loi
relative a la protection de la nature) provides full protection to 34 plant species and partial
protection to 17 additional species, 1 genus and 1 family. For partially protected plants it is
prohibited to uproot them, but the picking of their above-ground parts is allowed. Under
the Law, it is prohibited to promote, to acquire or to offer for sale, in either a fresh or dry
condition, any plants listed. For the list of protected plants see:
Anon (1967). Gesetz vom 21 Dezember 1966, betreffend die Abanderung des
Naturschutzgesetzes. Liechtensteinisches Landesgesetzblatt 1967, Nr. 5. Pp. 1-4.
216
Liechtenstein
Voluntary Organizations
Liechtensteinische Gesellschaft fiir Umweltschutz (Liechtenstein Society for
Environmental Protection), Heiligkreuz 52, Postfach 53290, 9490 Vaduz.
Useful Addresses
Ministére de |’agriculture et des foréts, Département des foréts, Vaduz.
Additional References
Broggi, M.F. (1977). Nature conservation and landscape management in Liechtenstein.
Parks 2(3): 14-16. (A short descriptive account of the history of nature conservation
in Liechtenstein and habitat degradation.)
Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island (31°35’S, 159°05’E) is situated 692 km north-east of Sydney, in the
Tasman Sea. It is a dependency of New South Wales, Australia. Unlike many colonized
islands of similar size, it retains a significant proportion of its native vegetation and flora.
In 1981, 8 sq. km were declared the Lord Howe Island Permanent Park Preserve which has
legislative protection equivalent to a National Park. In 1982, the Lord Howe Island group
(including Ball’s Pyramid) was designated a World Heritage Site under the World Heritage
Convention.
Area 13 sq. km
Population 300 (1974)
Floristics 379 vascular plant taxa, of which 219 are native (Rodd and Pickard,
1983). Of the 48 native fern species, 17 endemic; of the 171 flowering plant species, 57
endemic (Rodd and Pickard, 1983). A further 5 flowering plant taxa below the rank of
species are listed as endemic by Rodd and Pickard (1983). Lord Howe has 4 endemic
genera: Negria (Gesneriaceae) and the monotypic palm genera Howea, Hedyscepe and
Lepidorrhachis. Much of the flora has affinities with those of New Zealand and the Pacific
islands. Ske
Vegetation Lowland evergreen rain forest with Drypetes lasiogyna var.
australasica and Cryptocarya triplinervis, mostly below 460 m in north; lowland evergreen
rain forest with Cleistocalyx fullageri and Chionanthus quadristamineus, in south below
530 m; palm forest dominated by Howea, mostly below 300 m on coral sandstone and
basalt; palm forest dominated by Hedyscepe on Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird, pure
stands mostly above 610 m, but mixed stands as low as 335 m; Pandanus forest mostly in
south; mixed montane forest on summit plateau of Mount Gower above 760 m; scrub
vegetation, mostly in south; small areas of grassland on exposed coasts; tiny areas of
mangroves in sheltered creeks. Less than 20% of the vegetation is disturbed, and less than
10% cleared (Pickard, 1983b).
For vegetation maps and more detailed descriptions of vegetation units see (Recher and
Clark, 1974; Pickard, 1983b).
Checklists and Floras Lord Howe will be included in a forthcoming volume of
the Flora of Australia (1981- ), cited under Australia. The most recent checklist is:
217
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Rodd, A.N. and Pickard, J. (1983). Census of the vascular flora of Lord Howe Island.
Cunninghamia 1: 267-280.
See also:
Recher, H.F. and Clark, S.S. (Eds) (1974). Environmental Survey of Lord Howe
Island: A Report to the Lord Howe Island Board. New South Wales Govt Printer,
Sydney. 86 pp. (Includes annotated checklist, endemics indicated; chapter on
vegetation; vegetation map, scale 2 inches to one mile, prepared by J. Pickard.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Pickard, J. (1983a). Rare or threatened vascular plants of Lord Howe Island. Biol.
Conserv. 27: 125-139. (Detailed assessment of native and endemic vascular flora of
Lord Howe in terms of distribution, abundance and threat.)
A preliminary list of endemic plants with notes on conservation status is given in Leigh et
al. (1981), cited under Australia. Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:2, V:10, R:58,
I:3, nt:2, non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - V:3 (world categories).
Additional References
Pickard, J. (1973). An annotated botanical bibliography of Lord Howe Island.
Contrib. N.S.W. Nat. Herb. 4: 470-491.
Pickard, J. (1983b). Vegetation of Lord Howe Island. Cunninghamia 1: 133-265.
Recher, H.F. and Clark, S.S. (1974). A biological survey of Lord Howe Island with
recommendations for the conservation of the island’s wildlife. Biol. Conserv. 6:
263-273.
Louisiade Archipelago
About 100 islands 200 km south-east of New Guinea and politically part of Papua New
Guinea. The largest islands - Tagula, Misima and Rossel - are volcanic and have fringing
reefs; however, the majority of islands are coral formations. Population 12,000 (1971,
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1974).
The Louisiades have tropical rain forest (see the Vegetation Map of Malaysia by van
Steenis, 1958, cited in Appendix 1); no figure available for current rate of deforestation.
The flora has affinities with that of New Caledonia. No Flora or checklist has been
published. No figure for size of flora or number of endemics. No information on
threatened plants.
Luxembourg
Area 2586 sq. km
Population 363,000
Floristics About 1200 native and naturalized vascular species (L. Reichling, 1984,
in litt.). No endemics (IUCN figure).
218
Luxembourg
Vegetation A largely agricultural landscape. Original vegetation cover almost
entirely modified except for small forest fragments on steep rocky slopes, covering c. 33%
of country, of which beechwoods comprise 38%, oakwoods 28% and conifer plantations
33% (Reichling, in /itt.). In the Ardennes, near Echternach, is one of Europe’s most
ancient forests, of oak, beech and hornbeam, now protected as the Deutsch-
Luxemburgischer Naturpark (Muller, 1978).
Checklists and Floras Covered by Flora Europaea (Tutin et al., 1964-1980), but
plant records not distinguished from those for Belgium. No recent Flora except:
De Langhe, J.-E. et al. (1983). Nouvelle Flore de la Belgique, du Grand-Duché de
Luxembourg, du Nord de la France et des régions voisines, 3rd Ed. Jardin
Botanique National de Belgique, Meise. 1016 pp. (Ferns and flowering plants.)
For a plant atlas see:
Rompaey, E. van and Delvosalle, L. (1979). Atlas de la Flore Belge et
Luxembourgeoise, Pteridophtyes et Spermatophytes, 2nd Ed. Jardin Botanique
National de Belgique, Meise.
For a floristic bibliography see Hamann and Wagenitz (1977), cited in Appendix 1, and for
floristical accounts see:
Reichling, L. (1955- ). Notes floristiques. Observations faites dans le Grand-Duché de
Luxembourg en 1954. Bull. Soc. Naturalistes Luxembourg. Vol. 59 onwards.
A computerized floristic databank is to be developed by the Musée d’ Histoire Naturelle de
Luxembourg (address below) under the direction of the Centre de Recherche Scientifique
sur l’Environnement Natural (Anon, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
Relevant journal: Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes Luxembourgeois.
Information on Threatened Plants A national threatened plant list is in
preparation (Reichling, in /itt.). Luxembourg is included in the European threatened plant
list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon
this work: non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide — E:1, R:1 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the UK Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which includes data sheets on 2 plant species from Luxembourg, both extinct there, 1
Endangered on a world scale, the other of unknown world status.
Laws Protecting Plants The 1967 Grand-Ducal Order (Réglement grand-ducal du
22 décembre 1967 portant protection de certaines espéces végétales) provides 2 main levels
of protection: 18 species and 3 genera are given “‘strict protection’’, i.e. picking,
uprooting, sale and transport are prohibited; a further 24 species and 1 genus are given
more limited protection. For details see:
Reichling, L. (1981). In Luxembourg Geschiitzte Pflanzen. Ubersicht sowie Anleitung
zum Kennenlernen der in Luxemburg geschiitzten wildwachsenden Pflanzenarten,
2nd Ed. Natura (Luxemburger Liga fiir Natur- und Umweltschutz, Luxembourg.
47 pp. (Outlines the law; describes ecology and threats of plants protected;
distribution maps; colour photographs.)
219
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Voluntary Organizations
NATURA, 6 bd. Roosevelt, 2450 Luxembourg.
Société des Naturalistes Luxembourgeois, B.P. 327, 2013 Luxembourg.
Useful Addresses
Direction des Eaux et Foréts, Service Conservation de la Nature, 34 av. de la Porte-
Neuve, 2227 Luxembourg.
Musée d’Histoire Naturelle de Luxembourg, Marché-aux-Poissons, 2345 Luxembourg.
CITES Management Authority: Ministére de l’Agriculture, de la Viticulture et des Eaux
et Foréts, Administration des Services Techniques de |’Agriculture, Service de la
Protection des Végétaux, P.O. Box 1904, 16 Route d’Esch, 1019 Luxembourg.
Additional References
Muller, F-C. (1978). One park, two countries. Naturopa 30: 24-25.
Macau
Macau, an overseas province of Portugal, consists of the peninsula of the Chinese district
of Fo Shan and two small islands (Taipa and Coloane), 64 km west of Hong Kong. Area 16
sq. km; population 309,000. The highest point is 190 m, on Coloane.
Subtropical evergreen, monsoon forest greatly modified by fuelwood and timber cutting.
Extensive areas of secondary scrub and grassland. No figure for size of native flora or
number of endemics. No information on threatened plants.
References
Nogueira, A.C. de Sa (1984). Catalogo descritivo de 380 espécies botanicas da Colénia
de Macau, 2nd Ed. Sevicos Florestais E Agricolas de Macau, Julho. 181 pp.
(Describes 380 taxa, mostly introductions, in Portuguese.)
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island (54°29’S, 158°58’E) is in the South Pacific Ocean, c. 967 km south-west
of New Zealand. It is a dependency of Tasmania, Australia. Area 11 sq. km. No
permanent population, but the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition
(ANARE) station is manned by about 20 (1981) temporary staff (Clark and Dingwall,
1985, cited in Appendix 1).
36 native vascular plants, of which 3 endemic (all grasses). The vegetation is mainly
tussock grassland and Pleurophyllum herbaceous communities; sedges and rushes occupy
wetter areas; ‘feldmark’ vegetation, consisting of large areas of open ground with cushion-
forming vascular plants, mosses and lichens, on exposed uplands above 200 m. Grazing by
rabbits has reduced Poa foliosa, the dominant tussock grass of coastal slopes. Serious
erosion has stripped surface peat to reveal bedrock in places (Costin and Moore, 1960).
Leigh et al. (1981), cited under Australia, provides notes on the conservation status of the
endemics. Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - V:1, R:1, K:1.
220
Macquarie Island
References
Cheeseman, T.F. (1919). The Vascular Flora of Macquarie Island. Scientific Report of
the Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-1914, Ser. C (Zoology and Botany) 7(3):
63 pp.
Costin, A.B. and Moore, D.M. (1960). The effects of rabbit grazing on.the grasslands
of Macquarie Island. J. Ecol. 48: 729-732.
Greene, S.W. and Walton, D.W.H. (1975). An annotated check list of the sub-antarctic
and antarctic vascular flora. Polar Record 17(110): 473-484. (Includes tabular list of
native vascular plants, distributions indicated.)
Taylor, B.W. (1955). The Flora, Vegetation and Soils of Macquarie Island. ANARE
Scientific Report, Ser. B, Vol. 2 (Botany). 92 pp.
Madagascar
Area 594,180 sq. km
Population 9,731,000
Floristics Current estimates of flora between 10,000 and 12,000 species (Rauh,
1979; Guillaumet and Mangenot, 1975); more than 80% specific endemism (Rauh, 1979),
but this figure probably too high. Seven endemic families.
East and West Malagasy regions. East region much richer, with almost 75% of
Madagascar’s species, while the West region has 25% (Perrier de la Bathie, 1936). Floristic
affinities principally pantropical, African (especially East African) and Asian.
Vegetation North and east: tropical rain forest; west: dry deciduous forest;
south: dry xerophytic scrub (spiny desert). All but about 20% of natural vegetation now
destroyed; remainder includes 61,500 sq. km rain forest, 25,500 sq. km mountain
sclerophyllous and deciduous forest and 29,000 sq. km dry xerophytic scrub (Chauvet in
Richard-Vindard and Battistini, 1972). Most of land surface now uniform grassland with
chronic problems of erosion, probably caused by man (Rauh, 1979).
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 1500 sq. km/annum out of
103,000 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) gives a
figure of 26,000 sq. km of eastern moist forest, half of which is disrupted by shifting
cultivation which accounts for the destruction of 2000-3000 sq. km/annum.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
For information on Ile de l’Europa (22°20’S 40°20’E) and Juan de Nova (17°02’S
43°42’B), small islands in the Mozambique Channel, see Bosser (1952), Capuron (1966),
and Perrier de la Bathie (1921), below.
Checklists and Floras
Humbert, H. (1936- ). Flore de Madagascar et des Comores. Muséum National
d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris. (c. 80% complete, with 132 families written out of 189,
the most significant families outstanding being Leguminosae, Rubiaceae and
Gramineae; many of the early volumes now out of date.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 468 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic -
feat
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
E:3, V:11, R:23, 1:31, K:375, nt:25. By and large these are succulents, information lacking
for other life forms.
One species which occurs in Madagascar (Catharanthus coriaceus) is included in The
IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Index of potentially threatened plants in cultivation:
Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980). The Botanic Gardens List of
Madagascan Succulents 1980. Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body
Report No. 2. IUCN, Kew. 21 pp. (Lists 235 succulents, most endemic to
Madagascar, as in cultivation, from a list of 328 species.)
Laws Protecting Plants No plants or seeds may be exported without permission
(strongly enforced, and includes botanical collecting), but permission granted for export
of thousands of rare succulents.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanique de la DRST Tsimbazaza, B.P. 4096, Antananarivo.
Useful Addresses WWF is represented by Monsieur B. Vaohita, B.P. 4373,
Antananarivo.
CITES Management Authority: Direction des Eaux et Foréts et de la Conservation des
Sols, Foiben’ny Rano sy Ala, MPAEF, B.P. 243, Antananarivo.
CITES Scientific Authority: Ministére de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologie pour
le Développement, Antananarivo.
Additional References
Bosser, J. (1952). Notes sur la végétation des iles Europa et Juan de Nova. Naturaliste
Malg. 4: 41-42. (illus.)
Capuron, R. (1966). Rapport succinct sur la végétation et la flore de l’ile Europa.
Mém. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat., Sér. 2/A (Zool.) 41: 19-21.
Guillaumet, J.-L. and Mangenot, G. (1975). Aspects de la spéciation dans la flore
malgache. In Miége, J. and Stork, A.L. (1975, 1976), cited in Appendix 1,
pp. 119-123.
Humbert, H. and Cours Darne, G. (1965). Carte Internationale du Tapis Végétal et des
Conditions Ecologiques: ‘‘Madagascar’’. Trav. Sect. Sci. Techn. Inst. Frang.
Pondichéry, Hors Sér. 6. 162 pp. (Illus., with coloured vegetation map 1:1,000,000.)
IUCN (1972). Comptes Rendus de la Conférence Internationale sur la Conservation de
la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, 1970. Publications UICN Nouvelle
Série 36. 239 pp. (See especially papers by M. Keraudren-Aymonin, pp. 145-151, on
the Didiereaceae thickets of southern Madagascar, and by R. Melville, pp. 139-142,
on the floristic significance of Madagascar.)
Keraudren, M. (1968). Madagascar. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 261-265.
Koechlin, J., Guillaumet, J.-L. and Morat, P. (1974). Flore et Végétation de
Madagascar. Cramer, FL-9490, Vaduz, Liechtenstein. 687 pp. (With line drawings
and 188 black and white photographs.)
Leroy, J.-F. (1978). Composition, origin, and affinities of the Madagascan vascular
flora. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 65(2): 535-589.
Paulian, R. ef al. (1981). Madagascar, un Sanctuaire de la Nature. Paris.
Perrier de la Bathie, H. (1921). Note sur la constitution géologique et la flore des iles
Chesterfield, Juan-de-Nova, Europa et Nosy-Trozona. Bull. Ec. Mad. 170-176.
222
Madagascar
Perrier de la Bathie, H. (1936). Biogéographie des Plantes de Madagascar. Paris.
156 pp., 40 plates.
Rauh, W. Various articles on the succulent flora of Madagascar published in the
journal Kakteen und andere Sukkulenten between 1961 and 1970.
Rauh, W. (1973). Uber die Zonierung und Differenzierung der Vegetation
Madagaskars. Tropische und Subtropische Pfanzenwelt 1. 146 pp.
Rauh, W. (1979). Problems of biological conservation in Madagascar. In Bramwell, D.
(Ed.), Plants and Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 405-421.
Richard-Vindard, G. and Battistini, R. (Eds) (1972). Biogeography and Ecology of
Madagascar. Junk, The Hague. 765 pp. (See especially papers by B. Chauvet,
pp. 191-199, on the forests, and by J. Koechlin, pp. 145-190, on the flora and
vegetation, with 14 black and white photographs.)
The IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, at the request of UNEP, has prepared an
extensive Environmental Profile of Madagascar, now in press. This provides a
comprehensive review of the biota, plant and animal, of Madagascar and of the physical
environment. It includes a chapter on vegetation types and an analysis of forest cover and
loss.
Madeira Islands
A volcanic archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal. Comprises
Madeira itself and the Desertas to the south-east (uninhabited) and Porto Santo
(inhabited) to the north-east. Madeira, itself, is a very precipitous, wooded, volcanic island
c. 58 x 23 km. Its backbone is a serrated mountain range reaching the rugged peak of Pico
Ruivo (1861 m) and, to the west, the high grassy plateau of Paul da Serra. Deep rugged
ravines run to the coast.
Area 796 sq. km
Population 265,100 (1979 estimate, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics About 760 species of native ferns and flowering plants (Vieira, 1974),
of which 131 are endemic (IUCN figures); also c. 380 introduced plants, mostly
subtropical and many extensively naturalized.
Vegetation When discovered in 1419, most of the island was covered with forest,
now greatly reduced. Sj6gren (1972) distinguishes 4 vegetation zones: coastal vegetation of
low shrubs, herbs and succulents (e.g. Aeonium), much now replaced by cultivated land;
laurel forest, a subtropical evergreen cloud forest mainly of J/ex and Lauraceae, rich in
endemics and with a large ground flora, occurring between 1300 and 1850 m; a transitional
zone (700-1250 m) between the previous 2 zones; and above the laurel forest Erica scrub.
Checklists and Floras Covered in the Flora of Macaronesia checklist (Hansen and
Sunding, 1979, cited in Appendix 1). Below is a modern checklist and 2 Floras, both very
old and one of them - Lowe - incomplete:
Hansen, A. (1969). Checklist of vascular plants of the Archipelago of Madeira. Bol.
Museu Municipal Funchal 24: 1-62. (Annotated checklist with extensive
bibliography.)
Lowe, R.Th. (1857-1872). A Manual Flora of Madeira and the Adjacent Islands of
Porto Santo and the Desertas. London.
223
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Menezes, C.A. (1914). Flora do Archipelago da Madeira. Funchal. 282 pp. (In
Portuguese.)
The British Museum (Natural History), London, are preparing a Flora of Madeira.
Hansen has updated his 1969 checklist in a series of papers in Bocagiana (Museu Municipal
do Funchal, Madeira), namely No. 25 (18 pp., 1970), No. 27 (14 pp., 1971), No. 32 (13
pp., 1973) and No. 36 (37 pp., 1974). See also:
Hansen, A. (1976). A botanical bibliography of the archipelago of Madeira. Bol.
Museu Municipal Funchal 30: 26-45.
Field-guides
Christensen, T.B., Dalgaard, V. and Hamann, O. (1970). Oversigt over Madeiras
Flora. Kobenhavens Universitets. 167 pp. (Includes keys; in Danish.)
Delagacado de Turismo da Madeira (1976). Plantas e Flores/Plantes et Fleurs/Plants
and Flowers/Pflanzen und Blumen: Madeira. 151 pp. (Colour photographs of
selected species both wild and cultivated.)
Pinto da Silva, A.R. (1975). L’état actuel des connaissances floristiques et
taxonomiques du Portugal, de Madére et des Acores, en ce qui concerne les plantes
vasculaires. In CNRS, 1975, cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 19-28.
Ramirez (1953). Flora da Ilha da Madeira, Pteridofitas. (Not seen.)
Vieira, R. (1974). Album floristico da Madeira. Funchal. (Colour photographs of 124
plants, both wild and cultivated; English version available as Flowers of Madeira.)
Information on Threatened Plants The only known list is that produced by IUCN
Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat (1980) for North Africa and the Middle East,
cited in Appendix 1. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemics - E:17, V:30,
R:39, K:22, nt:23; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide - E:2, V:17, R:5 (world
categories).
Botanic Gardens
Jardim Botanico da Madeira, Quinta do Bom Sucesso-Caminho do Meio, 9000
Funchal.
Jardim Botanico da Ribeiro Frio (maintained by Servicos Florestais, Departamento de
Agricultura e Pescas, Avenida do Mar, Funchal).
Useful Addresses
Museu Municipal do Funchal, 9000 Funchal.
Additional References
Bramwell, D., Montelongo, V., Navarro, B. and Ortega, J. (1982). Informe Sobre la
Conservacion de los Bosques y la Flora de la Isla de Madeira. Report to
International Dendrology Society and IUCN, by staff of the Jardin Botanico ‘‘Viera
y Clavijo’’, outlining proposals for a protected areas system on Madeira. (In
Spanish and Portuguese.)
Bramwell, D. and Synge, H. (1983). A conservation project in Madeira. Int. Dendrol.
Soc. Yb., 1982: 73-74. (Summary of Bramwell et a/., 1982.)
Malato-Beliz, J. (1977). ConsideracGes sobre a proteccao da flora e da vegetacao na
Madeira. Natureza e Paisagem 3: 1-11.
Sj6gren, E. (1972). Vascular plant communities of Madeira. Bol. Museu Municipal
Funchal 26 (114): 45-125.
Sjogren, E. (1973). Conservation of natural plant communities on Madeira and in the
Azores. In Proc. 1 Intern. Congress pro Flora Macaronesica. Pp. 148-153. (Not
seen.)
224
Madeira Islands
Tavares, C.N. (1965). I/ha da Madeira. O meio e a flora. Lisboa. 174 pp. (In
Portuguese.)
Malawi
Area 94,081 sq. km
Population 6,788,000
Floristics c. 3600 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1960, cited in Appendix 1).
Endemism generally low, but highest in the mountain areas; Brenan (1978, cited in
Appendix 1) estimates 69 endemic species from a sample of Flora Zambesiaca. Wild (1964)
lists 30 species apparently endemic to Mt Mulanje.
Flora principally Zambezian but with a few islands of Afromontane flora, especially the
Misuku forests and Nyika and Viphya Plateaux in the north, and Mt Mulanje and Zomba
Plateau in the south.
Vegetation Predominantly more or less open Brachystegia-Julbernardia
(Miombo) woodland; also considerable areas of Zambezian woodland dominated by
species of Combretum, Acacia and Piliostigma around Lilongwe and south of Lake
Malawi. Afromontane communities occur at higher altitudes, including small patches of
evergreen forest and large expanses of short grassland. Lowland forest occurs on the
shores of the northern part of Lake Malawi, on the lower slopes of Mt Mulanje and on the
Malawi Hills where they rise from the Shire Valley.
For vegetation maps see Wild and Barbosa (1967, 1968), and White (1983), both cited in
Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Malawi is included in the incomplete Flora Zambesiaca and
in Trees of Central Africa (Coates Palgrave et al., 1957), both cited in Appendix 1.
Binns, B. (1968). A First Check List of the Herbaceous Flora of Malawi. Govt Printer,
Zomba. 113 pp. ‘pict
Burtt Davy, J. and Hoyle, A.C. (Eds) (1958). Check Lists of the Trees and Shrubs of
the Nyasaland Protectorate, 2nd Ed., revised by P. Topham, 1958. Govt Printer,
Zomba. 137 pp. (1st Ed. 1936 as Check-Lists of the Forest Trees and Shrubs of the
British Empire. No. 2: Nyasaland Protectorate, Oxford.)
Field-guides
Kitchin, A.M. and Pullinger, J.S. (1982). Trees of Malawi, with Some Shrubs and
Climbers. 229 pp. (Colour paintings of 108 species, mostly by J.S. Pullinger; text by
A.M. Kitchin.)
Moriarty, A. (1975). Wild Flowers of Malawi. Purnell, Cape Town. 166 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of c. 130 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
of which roughly half are known to be rare or threatened. Of relevance:
Chapman, J.D. (1981). Conservation of vegetation and its constituent species in
Malawi. Nyala 6(2): 125-132.
225
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Voluntary Organizations
National Fauna Preservation Society of Malawi, c/o Museums of Malawi, P.O. Box
30360, Blantyre. (Publishes the journal Nyala.)
Society of Malawi Historic and Scientific, P.O. Box 125, Blantyre. (Publishes The
Society of Malawi Journal.)
Useful Addresses
Dept of Forestry, Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources, Lilongwe 3.
National Herbarium, Chancellor College, P.O. Box 280, Zomba.
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: The Chief Game Warden, Dept of
National Parks and Wildlife, P.O. Box 30131, Lilongwe 3.
Additional References
Brass, L.J. (1953). Vegetation of Nyasaland. Report on the Vernay Nyasaland
expedition of 1946. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 8: 161-190.
Chapman, J.D. (1962). The Vegetation of the Mlanje Mountains, Nyasaland. Govt
Printer, Zomba. 78 pp. (With 25 black and white photographs.)
Chapman, J.D. (1968). Malawi. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 215-224.
Chapman, J.D. and White, F. (1970). The Evergreen Forests of Malawi.
Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Univ. of Oxford. 190 pp. (Includes a useful
ecological and phytogeographical bibliography; 60 black and white photographs.)
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Wild, H. (1964). The endemic species of the Chimanimani Mountains and their
significance. Kirkia 4: 125-157.
Malaysia
Area 332,669 sq. km
Peninsular Malaysia: 131,587 sq. km; Sabah: 76,115 sq. km; Sarawak: 124,967 sq. km
Population 15,204,000, of which c. 12,000,000 in Peninsular Malaysia
Floristics Peninsular Malaysia has c. 8000 flowering plant species in 1500 genera;
c. 500 species of ferns (Keng, 1983). The flora of the Malay Peninsula comprises mainly
Malesian elements, with continental Asiatic and some Australian elements at low and
medium altitudes. Floristic affinities are discussed by Keng (1970). No figure for number
of species in Sabah or Sarawak, but Borneo (whole island) has c. 10,000-11,000 vascular
plant species, based on Merrill (1921).
Vegetation Tropical evergreen rain forest is the natural vegetation of most of
Malaysia: lowland dipterocarp forest up to 300 m, hill dipterocarp forest at 300-1300 m,
montane rain forest above; semi-evergreen rain forest occurs in the far north-west of
Peninsular Malaysia; karst limestone supporting rich endemic flora covers 260 sq. km in
Peninsular Malaysia (Chin, 1977- ); limestone forests at low elevations south of Kuching
and at Niah, and at high elevations around Gunung Mulu in Sarawak.
Peninsular Malaysia Lowland forests have been heavily logged; most hill
dipterocarp forests selectively logged; only tiny patches of heath forest remaining on east
coast; freshwater swamp-forest and c. 1136 sq. km of mangrove forest remaining, mostly
226
Malaysia
in south (Corner, 1978). Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 900
sq. km/annum out of a total of 75,780 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Davison (1982)
calculated the area of forest in 1980 to be 53,420 sq. km, of which primary rain forest
occupied 27,925 sq. km.
Sabah Lowland and hill dipterocarp forests comprise c. 54% of the total forest
cover; montane forests, 14% (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Most remaining forests are
‘productive’ or ‘potentially productive’ dipterocarp forests (Myers, 1980, cited in
Appendix 1). Upper montane forest (1850-3200 m), subalpine rain forest (3200-4100 m)
and alpine scrub occur on Mt Kinabalu. Mangrove forests cover 3500 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981); peat swamp and mangrove forests in Klias Peninsula now being
logged. Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 760 sq. km/annum
out of a total of 49,970 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). According to estimates by the
Government of Malaysia (quoted in Myers, 1980), there were 61,488 sq. km still forested
in 1977, of which 31,000-34,521 sq. km were undisturbed.
Sarawak Mixed dipterocarp forests cover 78.6% of the forest area; peat swamp
forests about 15%; heath forests (kerangas) 3.9%; mangroves 1.8% (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Gunung Mulu National Park contains most of the major vegetation types of Sarawak,
including high elevation limestone forest. Estimated rate of deforestation of closed
broadleaved forest 890 sq. km/annum out of a total of 84,200 sq. km (FAO/UNEP,
1981). According to estimates by the Government of Malaysia (quoted in Myers, 1980),
97,087 sq. km were still forested in 1977, of which 55,687-62,661 sq. km were undisturbed.
Malaysia is included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958) and on the
vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora Malesiana region at
scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Thomas, P., Lo, F.K.C. and Hepburn, A.J. (1976). The Land Capability Classification
of Sabah, 4 vols. Land Resources Study 25. Ministry of Overseas Development,
Surbiton, U.K. (Land use and evaluation, includes maps of land capability
classification at 1:250,000. Vol. 1 - Tawau Residency; 2 - Sandakan Residency; 3 -
West Coast and Kudat Residencies; 4 - Interior Residency and Labuan.)
Wyatt-Smith, J. (1964). A preliminary vegetation map of Malaya with descriptions of
the vegetation types. J. Trop. Geog. 18: 200-213. (Includes vegetation map of
Peninsular Malaysia with notes on vegetation types.)
Checklists and Floras Malaysia is included in the very detailed but incomplete
Flora Malesiana (1948- ), cited in Appendix 1.
Peninsular Malaysia is covered by:
A Revised Flora of Malaya, 3 vols. 1 - Orchids of Malaya, by R.E. Holttum. 3rd Ed.,
1964. 759 pp. 2 - Ferns of Malaya by R.E. Holttum, 2nd Ed., 1966. 653 pp. 3 -
Grasses of Malaya, by H.B. Gilliland (1971). 319 pp. Govt Printer, Singapore.
Tree Flora of Malaya. Vols 1 and 2 (1972) edited by T.C. Whitmore. Vol. 3 (1978) and
4 (in press) edited by F.S.P. Ng. Longman, Kuala Lumpur and London. (Excludes
Dipterocarpaceae, but otherwise complete; keys, descriptions, line drawings of
selected taxa. For dipterocarps see Flora Malesiana 9(2), 1982.)
Other accounts include:
Anderson, J.A.R. (1980). A Checklist of the Trees of Sarawak. Forest Dept, Sarawak.
364 pp. (Over 2500 species enumerated.)
Browne, F.G. (1955). Forest Trees of Sarawak and Brunei and Their Products. Govt
227
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Printer, Kuching. 369 pp. (Descriptions of timber trees with notes on distribution
and wood properties.)
Cockburn, P.F. (1976, 1980). Trees of Sabah, 2 vols so far. Forest Dept, Kuching.
Dransfield, J. (1979). A Manual of the Rattans of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan
Forestry Records no. 29. Malaysia Forest Dept. 270 pp. (Keys, descriptions,
drawings; checklist of 104 species.)
Dransfield, J. (1984). The Rattans of Sabah. Forest Dept, Sabah. 182 pp. (Keys,
descriptions, drawings; checklist of 82 taxa.)
Fox, J.E.D. (1970). Preferred Check-list of Sabah Trees. Sabah Forest Record no. 7.
Borneo Literature Bureau, Kuching. 65 pp.
Merrill, E.D. (1921). A Bibliographic Enumeration of Bornean Plants. Fraser and
Neave, Singapore. 637 pp. (Systematic enumeration with notes on distribution;
introduction covers vegetation, history of botanical investigation.)
Ridley, H.N. (1922-1925). The Flora of the Malay Peninsula, 5 vols. Reeve, London.
(Reprinted 1968; Asher, Amsterdam.)
Whitmore, T.C. (1973). Palms of Malaya. Oxford Univ. Press, London. 132 pp.
Wyatt-Smith, J. (1952). Pocket Check List of Timber Trees. Malayan Forest Records
no. 17. Forest Dept, Peninsular Malaysia. (3rd Ed., 1979, by K.M. Kochummen.)
Field-guides
Corner, E.J.H. (1952). Wayside Trees of Malaya, 2nd Ed., 2 vols. Govt Printing
Office, Singapore.
Henderson, M.R. (1949, 1954). Malayan Wild Flowers, 2 vols. Malayan Nature Soc.,
Kuala Lumpur. (1 - dicotyledons; 2 - monocotyledons; keys, descriptions of a
selection of wildflowers.)
Kurata, S. (1976). Nepenthes of Kinabalu. Sabah National Parks, Kota Kinanbalu.
80 pp.
Shivas, R. (1984). Pitcher Plants of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Maruzen Asia,
Singapore. 58 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants No national list of threatened plants has been
published. 4 species are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). A preliminary
list of endemics from limestone areas, prepared by S.C. Chin in 1984, includes - E:6, V:2,
R:72, 1:41, nt:30, K:13. IUCN also has a full list of palms, some of which have
conservation categories.
Kiew, R. (1983- ). Portraits of threatened plants. Malayan Naturalist 37(1): 6-7; 37(2):
6-7; 37(4): 4-6; 38(1): 9-10; 38(2): 6. (Data sheets on Maxburretia rupicola, Ilex
praetermissa, Didymocarpus primulinus, Maclurodendron magnificum, Melicope
suberosa, Musa gracilis and Maingaya malayana.)
Ng, F.S.P. and Low, C.M. (1982). Check List of Endemic Trees of the Malay
Peninsula. Forest Research Institute, Kepong. 94 pp. (Lists 654 trees endemic to the
Malay peninsula of which 343 ‘endangered’, based on numbers of herbarium
specimens.)
Rao, A.N., Keng, H. and Wee, Y.C. (1983). Problems in conservation of plant
resources in South East Asia. In Jain, S.K. and Mehra, K.L. (Eds), Conservation of
Tropical Plant Resources. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 181-204.
(Includes list of 90 endemic taxa threatened in Malaysia; useful bibliography.)
Voluntary Organizations
Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 10750, Kuala Lumpur, Peninsular Malaysia.
Sabah Society, P.O. Box 547, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
228
Malaysia
WWF-Malaysia, Wisma Damansara, Jalan Semantan, P.O. Box 10769, Kuala Lumpur,
Peninsular Malaysia.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Gardens, Penang, Peninsular Malaysia.
Forest Research Centre (Arboretum and Herbarium), P.O. Box 1407, Sandakan,
Sabah.
Forest Research Institute (Arboretum and Herbarium), Kepong, Selangor, Peninsular
Malaysia.
Rimba Ilmu Botanic Garden, Department of Botany, University of Malaya, Lembah
Pantai, Kuala Lumpur, Peninsular Malaysia.
Sabah Orchid Centre, c/o Cocoa Research Station, P.O. Box 197, Tenom, Sabah.
Semangoh Arboretum, Sarawak Forest Department, Kuching, Sarawak.
Useful Addresses
Sarawak Herbarium, Forest and Department Headquarters, Jalan Badruddin, Kuching,
Sarawak.
CITES Management Authority: Wildlife and National Parks, Pejabat-Pejabat
Kerajaan, Blok K-19, Jalan Duta, Kuala Lumpur 11-04, Peninsular Malaysia.
CITES Scientific Authority: Secretary General, Ministry of Science, Technology and
the Environment, Tingkat 14, Bangunan Oriental Plaza, Jalan Ramli, Kuala
Lumpur 04-01, Peninsular Malaysia.
Additional References
Anderson, J.A.R. (1963). The flora of the peat swamp forest of Sarawak and Brunei,
including a catalogue of all recorded species of flowering plants, ferns and fern
allies. Gard. Bull. Singapore 20: 131-228.
Brunig, E.F. (1974). Ecological Studies in the Kerangas Forests of Sarawak and Brunei.
Borneo Literature Bureau, Kuching. 237 pp.
Burkill, I.H. (1966). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula,
2nd Ed., 2 vols. Ministry of Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur. (2432 species, notes on
Origin, uses, vernacular names.)
Chai, P.K. and Choo, N.C. (1983). Conservation of forest genetic resources in
Malaysia with special reference to Sarawak. In Jain, S.K. and Mehra, K.L. (Eds),
Conservation of Tropical Plant Resources. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Pp. 39-47. —
Chin, S.C. (1977- ). The limestone hill flora of Malaya. Gard. Bull. Singapore 30:
165-219; 32: 64-203; 35: 137-190; 36: 31-91. (About 1216 vascular species found on
limestone, including 261 endemics; keys, annotated checklist.)
Corner, E.J.H. (1978). The Freshwater Swamp-forest of South Johore and Singapore.
Gardens Bulletin Supplement 1, Singapore. 266 pp. (Ecology; species lists.)
Davison, G.W.H. (1982). How much forest is there? Malayan Naturalist 35: 11-12.
Holttum, R.E. (1954). Plant Life in Malaya. Longmans and Green, London. 254 pp.
(Useful introduction to the flora.)
Jacobs, M. (1974). Botanical panorama of the Malesian archipelago (vascular plants).
In Unesco, Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia. Natural Resources Research
12. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 263-294.
Keng, H. (1970). Size and affinities of the flora of the Malay Peninsula. J. Trop.
Geog. 31: 43-56.
Keng, H. (1983). Orders and Families of Malayan Seed Plants. Singapore Univ. Press.
441 pp. (Revised edition; keys and brief systematic accounts of 41 orders and 177
families in the Malayan flora.)
229
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Kiew, R. (1983). Conservation of Malaysian plant species. Malayan Naturalist 37(1):
2-5. (Conservation problems and priorities.)
Lee, D. (1980). The Sinking Ark: Environmental Problems in Malaysia and Southeast
Asia. Heinemann, Kuala Lumpur. 85 pp.
Luping, D.M., Wen, C. and Dingley, E.R. (1978). Kinabalu: Summit of Borneo. Sabah
Society Monograph, Kota Kinabalu. 486 pp. (Covers flora, vegetation, fauna,
geology, history of exploitation.)
Shuttleworth, C. (1981). Malaysia’s Green and Timeless World. Heinemann, Kuala
Lumpur. 221 pp. (Covers flora and fauna).
Watson, J.G. (1928). Mangrove Forests of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest
Records no. 6. Fed. Malay States Govt. 275 pp.
Maldives
The Maldives (298 sq. km) comprise 1201 islands, grouped into 19 coral atolls, extending
north-south for about 885 km south-west of Sri Lanka, between latitudes 7°N and 3°S,
and longitudes 73-74°E. 202 islands are permanently inhabited; the total population is
173,000.
The islands are mostly below 1.5 m above sea-level, and covered by coconut palms,
grassland or scrub. Little native vegetation remains undisturbed.
583 vascular plant species (including cultivated plants). According to Adams (1983), there
are 260 ‘‘native or naturalized’’ species, of which about half are likely to have been
intentionally introduced. The only recorded endemics are 5 species of Pandanus (St John,
1961). There are local restrictions on the cutting of any living plant for firewood, except
Scaevola sericea (C.D. Adams, 1984, in litt.).
References
Adams, C.D. (1983). Report to the Government of the Maldive Islands on Flora
Identification. FAO Project RAS 79/123, Rome. 41 pp.
Fosberg, F.R. (1957). The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Afoll Res. Bull. 58. 37 pp.
(Includes checklist of 4 ferns, one cycad, 322 angiosperms, many of which are
introductions.)
Fosberg, F.R., Groves, E.W. and Sigee, D.C. (1966). List of Addu vascular plants. In
Stoddart, D.R. (Ed.), Reef studies at Addu Atoll, Maldive Islands. Preliminary
results of an expedition to Addu Atoll in 1964. Atoll Res. Bull. 116: 75-92.
(Checklist of 5 ferns, 2 gymnosperms, 135 angiosperms.)
St John, H. (1961). Revision of the Genus Pandanus Stickman, Part 5. Pandanus of
the Maldive Islands and Seychelles Islands, Indian Ocean. Pacific Science 15:
328-346.
Stutz, L.-C. (1982). Herborisation 1981 aux iles Maldives. Candollea 37: 599-631. (Lists
123 taxa in Male, Bandos and Thulaagiri; notes on uses, and additional reports on
31 mainly introduced shrubs.)
Willis, J.C. and Gardiner, J.S. (1901). The botany of the Maldive Islands. Annals
Royal Botanic Gardens Peradeniya 1: 45-164. (Includes annotated list of 359 species
recorded from Chagos Archipelago, Laccadives and Maldives; 284 recorded on
Maldives, of which c. 90 are native.)
230
Mali
Area 1,240,142 sq. km
Population 7,825,000
Floristics 1600 species (J.-P. Lebrun, 1984, pers. comm.), with 11 endemic
species (Brenan, 1978, cited in Appendix 1). Floristically poor for its enormous size.
Floristic affinities Saharan, Sahelian and Sudanian in north, centre and south of country
respectively.
Vegetation Northern half of country desert and semi-desert with little or no
perennial vegetation. Southwards: east-west bands of Acacia wooded grassland and
deciduous bushland, Sudanian woodland without characteristic dominants, and Sudanian
woodland with Jsoberlinia. Also, a large area of swamp grassland with semi-aquatic
vegetation in centre of country.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Mali south of c. 18°N is included in the Flora of West
Tropical Africa. Mali north of c. 16°N is included in Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and
in the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980); these are all cited in Appendix 1.
Boudet, G. and Lebrun, J.-P. (in prep.). Catalogues des plantes vasculaires du Mali.
To be published by the Institut d’Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays
Tropicaux, Maisons-Alfort.
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 11 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
including V:2, R:3.
Jaeger, P. (1956). Contribution a l’étude des foréts reliques du Soudan occidental. Bull.
IFAN 18A: 993-1053. (Includes small map of distribution of threatened timber tree
Gilletiodendron glandulosum.)
Additional References
Jaeger, P. (1968). Mali. In Hedberg, I. and -O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 51-53.
Jaeger, P. and Winkoun, D. (1962). Premier contact avec la flore et la végétation du
plateau de Bandiagara. Bull. IFAN 24A: 69-111.
Rossetti, C. (1962). Observations sur la Végétation au Mali Oriental (1959). Projet
Pélerin, Rapp. No. UNSF/DL/ES/4, FAO, Rome. 68 pp.
Malta
The Republic of Malta includes Malta, Gozo, Comino and 2 uninhabited islands, in the
central Mediterranean.
Area 316 sq. km
Population 380,000
231
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Floristics 900 native vascular species (E. Lanfranco, 1984, pers. comm.); 5
endemics (IUCN figures). A Mediterranean flora.
Vegetation Little natural vegetation due to agriculture, building construction and
tourism. Most remaining vegetation is semi-natural and confined to inaccessible coastal
cliffs, e.g. fragments of garigue and maquis with remnants of Holm Oak (Quercus ilex)
woodland, now reduced to a few individuals. Inland, on the jagged coralline limestone
plateau in the north and west, there is a thin scattered scrub of garigue, with occasional
trees in the valleys. Elsewhere garigue is the dominant vegetation cover with Euphorbia,
Thymus and Teucrium spp. Little maquis remains.
Priority areas for protection are as follows: ‘‘Wardija Ridge, the pool and sand dunes at
Ghadira and in Gozo, the dunes at Ramla bay and the coralline plateau and valley between
Ta’ Cenc and Mgarr ix-Xini. These together with the Wieds contain much of what is left of
the semi-natural vegetation of the Islands’’ (Haslam et al., 1977).
Checklists and Floras Malta is covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin
et al., 1964-1980), cited in Appendix 1, but plant records are not distinguished from those
for Sicily. Malta is also being covered by the Med-Checklist (cited in Appendix 1).
National Floras:
Borg, J. (1927). Descriptive Flora of the Maltese Islands. Government Printing Office,
Malta. 846 pp. (Extensive introductory text describes geology, climate, vegetation
and botanical exploration; reprinted 1976.)
Haslam, S.M., Sell, P.D. and Wolseley, P.A. (1977). A Flora of the Maltese Islands.
Malta University Press, Msida. 560 pp. (Introduction outlines history of floristic
studies in Malta, plant communities and habitats; line drawings.)
Relevant journal, which includes conservation articles: The Maltese Naturalist, Society for
the Study and Conservation of Nature (SSCN), address below.
Field-guides
Lanfranco, G.G. (1977). Field Guide to the Wild Flowers of Malta, 2nd Ed. Progress
Press, Malta. 83 pp. (Illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants No national plant Red Data Book, but see:
Lanfranco, E. (1976). Report on the present situation of the Maltese flora. The Maltese
Naturalist 2(3): 69-80. (Describes threats to the flora; lists over 300 extinct and
endangered taxa in 2 appendices; line drawings of over SO species.)
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: endemic taxa - V:1, R:2, I:1,
nt:1.
Laws Protecting Plants The Antiquities Act of 1933 (Article 3) provides
protection for historical trees and those over 200 years old. This includes Quercus ilex as
well as several cultivated trees. Legislation for the protection of Maltese wildlife has been
prepared by the Environment Protection Centre (address below) and now awaits
finalization.
Voluntary Organizations
Society for the Study and Conservation of Nature (SSCN), P.O. Box 459, Valetta.
(Formerly the Natural History Society of Malta.)
232
Malta
Botanic Gardens
Argotti Botanic Gardens, Floriana.
Useful Addresses
Environment Protection Centre (EPC), Ministry of Health and Environment, Bighi,
Malta.
Additional References
Kramer, K.U. et al. (1972). Floristic and cytotaxonomic notes on the flora of the
Maltese Islands. Acta Bot. Neerl. 21(1): 54-66.
Lanfranco, E. (1980). A survey of natural sites in Gozo and the updating of flora and
fauna lists. Gozo Agricultural Study. Working Paper no. III/i. Unesco and
University of Malta. (Not seen.)
Lanfranco, E. (1981). Suggestions on the conservation of the unique flora associated
with the Gozo Citadel. Soc. Stud. Cons. Nat. 3 pp.
Lanfranco, E. (1982). Maltese succulents and conservation. Kakti u Sukkulenti Ohra
24: 13-15.
Mariana Islands
14 islands to the north of Guam, in the Pacific Ocean, and extending in a 925 km arc
between latitudes 12-23°N and longitudes 145-150°E. The northern islands are volcanic,
some still active; Tinian (102 sq. km) and Rota (86 sq. km) in the south are raised limestone
terraces overlying extinct volcanoes. The Marianas are part of the United Nations Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands administered by the United States, but currently form the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (Ballendorf, 1984).
Area 477 sq. km
Population 16,780 (1980 census)
Floristics No overall figure for the size of the flora, but 478 dicotyledon taxa,
including introductions. Of the 221 native dicotyledons, 78 are endemic (Fosberg, Sachet
and Oliver, 1979, cited in Appendix 1). The only native gymnosperm is Cycas circinalis,
which is non-endemic. There are 64 native fern taxa, of which 3 are endemic (Fosberg,
Sachet and Oliver, 1982, cited in Appendix 1). The flora is mostly related to that of S.E.
Asia, Melanesia and New Guinea.
Vegetation Pioneer stands of Casuarina, broadleaved evergreen thickets, mixed
scrub forest, with some Miscanthus and Nephrolepis herbaceous communities on the
northern islands. Broadleaved evergreen forest on old lava flows; Miscanthus and tree
ferns on ash slopes of those northern islands with dormant volcanoes (Douglas, 1969, cited
in Appendix 1). Tinian has mostly secondary forests; Rota has some closed evergreen and
limestone forests (Fosberg, 1973, cited in Appendix 1). Small areas of cloud forest occur
on the volcanic islands of Saipan, Agrihan, Alamagan and Anatahan (Dahl, 1980, cited
in Appendix 1). The lower slopes on many islands have been cleared for cultivation.
Checklists and Floras The Marianas are included in Flora Micronesica (Kanehira,
1933), the regional checklists of Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver (1979, 1982), cited in
Appendix 1, and will be covered by the Flora of Micronesia (1975- ), cited in Appendix 1.
Separate lists include:
233
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Fosberg, F.R., Falanruw, M.V.C. and Sachet, M.-H. (1975). Vascular flora of the
Northern Marianas Islands. Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 22. 45 pp. (Annotated
checklist with geographical and ecological data.)
Fosberg, F.R., Falanruw, M.V.C. and Sachet, M.-H. (1977). Additional records of
vascular plants from the Northern Mariana Islands. Micronesica 13(1): 27-31.
Information on Threatened Plants Heritiera longipetiolata and Serianthes
nelsonii are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978).
Additional References
Ballendorf, D.A. (1984). American social, political and economic interests in
Micronesia. Ambio 13(5-6): 294-295.
Marion and Prince Edward
Islands
The volcanic islands of Marion and Prince Edward in the Southern Ocean are 22 km apart;
the nearest continent is Africa 1800 km NNW. Marion Island (46°55’S, 37°45’E) has a
central highland plateau rising to over 1200 m, the top of which is permanently covered
with ice. The area of Marion is 300 sq. km; that of Prince Edward is 90 sq. km. There is a
permanently manned weather and scientific station on Marion, with up to 12 persons. In
1948 South Africa proclaimed sovereignty of the islands.
Marion has 22 native and 13 introduced vascular species; Prince Edward has 21 native and
1 introduced vascular species. One endemic (Elaphoglossum randii). (Gremmen, 1982).
Cryptogams show quite a high degree of endemism. There are no trees or shrubs. The
vegetation of the coastal areas consists of herbaceous communities dominated by salt-
resistant species. Otherwise the islands are mostly covered by various sorts of tundra-type
mire in which the important peat-forming plants are bryophytes, closed communities of
tussock-forming grasses, cushion-forming flowering plants, and communities with large-
leaved perennial species.
References
Greene, S.W. and Walton, D.W.H. (1975). An annotated check list of the sub-antarctic
and antarctic vascular flora. Polar Record 17(110): 473-484.
Gremmen, N.J.M. (1982). The Vegetation of the Subantarctic Islands Marion and
Prince Edward. (Geobotany 3.) Junk, The Hague. 149 pp. (With tables of the
indigenous vascular plants and their distributions.)
van Zinderen Bakker Sr, E.M., Winterbottom, J.M. and Dyer, R.A. (Eds) (1971).
Marion and Prince Edward Islands: Report on the South African Biological and
Geographical Expedition, 1965-1966. Balkema, Cape Town. 427 pp. (Includes
numerous papers on the islands; see especially that of B.J. Huntley, pp. 98-160, on
the vegetation.)
234
Marquesas Islands
The Marquesas are an isolated group of 14 volcanic islands in the central Pacific Ocean,
between latitudes 7°50’ and 10°35’S, and longitudes 138°25’ and 140°50’W. Their nearest
neighbours are the atolls of the Tuamotu Archipelago, 483 km to the south. Apart from
Ua Pu, each island appears to consist of half an original volcanic peak. The highest point
is 1260 m, on Hiva Oa. The Marquesas form an administrative division of French
Polynesia.
Area 1275 sq. km
Population 800, most on Tahuata and Fatu Hiva (Douglas, 1969, cited in
Appendix 1).
Floristics 76 ferns and 171 native angiosperm taxa (Flora of Southeastern
Polynesia, 1931-1935, cited in Appendix 1); 103 endemic vascular plant taxa (IUCN
figures). 24 species are found only on Nuku Hiva, 13 are confined to Hiva Oa, 6 to Fatu
Hiva, 5 to Ua Pu, 2 to Eiao, and one confined to each of Ua Huka and Mohotani
(Melville, 1970). Lebronnecia and Cyrtandroidea are monotypic endemic genera.
Vegetation The natural vegetation included upland rain forest, with
Metrosideros, Weinmannia and tree ferns, above 600 m, in northern and western Nuku
Hiva, Fatu Hiva, Ua Huku and Ua Pu, and above 1000 m on Hiva Oa; dry forest, with
Hibiscus, Pandanus, Thespesia and Cordia, on the lower slopes below the cloud line, and
originally covering most of Eiao and Fatu Huku (Melville, 1970); and intermediate or
‘mesophytic’ forest, with Hibiscus, Piper and Cordyline, on the plateaux to the west and
east of Mt Ootua on Hiva Oa, and over most of central Nuku Hiva (Adamson, 1936).
Eragrostis grassland and xerophytic scrub is still found on the lower, more arid islands
such as Hatutu.
All the islands have been devastated by overgrazing by feral and domestic animals. Much
of the original dry forest on the lower slopes below 1000 m, has been totally destroyed, or
reduced to Gleichenia and tussock grassland, and on some islands, such as Eiac, the drier
parts of Nuku Hiva, and in north-west Ua Pu, there is no vegetation left at all (Melville,
1970, 1979; Schafer, 1977). Feral cattle have caused extensive damage to upland rain
forests on the larger islands (Melville, 1970).—
Checklists and Floras The only complete account is the Flora of Southeastern
Polynesia (Brown and Brown, 1931-1935), cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Sachet, M.-H. (1975). Flora of the Marquesas, 1: Ericaceae-Convolvulaceae.
Smithsonian Contrib. Bot. 23. 34 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants Lebronnecia kokioides and Pelagodoxa
henryana are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics:
endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:17, V:13, R:7, 1:21, K:40, nt:4.
Additional References
Adamson, A.M. (1936). Marquesan insects: environment. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus.
139. 73 pp. (Includes description of vegetation.)
Gillett, G.W. Report on botanical research in the Marquesas Islands (1970). Bull. Soc.
Etud. Océanien. (Not seen.)
Hallé, F. Arbres et foréts de Iles Marquises. Cah. Pacifigq. 27. (Not seen.)
Melville, R. (1970). The endemic plants of the Marquesas Islands and their
conservation status. (Unpublished Red Data Bulletin material.)
235
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Melville, R. (1979). Endangered island floras. In Bramwell, D. (Ed.), Plants and
Islands. Academic Press, London. Pp. 361-377.
Sachet, M.H., Schafer, P.A. and Thibault, J.C. (1975). Mohotani: une ile protégée aux
Marquises. Bull. Soc. Etudes Océanien 16(6): 557-568.
Salvat, B. (1974). Mesures en faveur de la Protection de la Iles Marquises. Unpublished
report. (Not seen.)
Schafer, P.A. (1977). La Vegetation et L’Influence Humaine aux Iles Marquises.
Academie de Montpellier, Languedoc. 31 pp.
Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands are the easternmost island group of Micronesia in the western Pacific
Ocean, between latitudes 8-12°N and longitudes 162-172°E. There are two island chains:
the Ralik Chain (18 atolls) and the Ratak Chain (15 atolls). They form a district of the
United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands administered by the United States.
All the atolls are low with numerous islets, some of which enclose a central lagoon. The
largest island is Kwajalein (16 sq. km) with 92 islets.
Area 181 sq. km
Population 30,873
Floristics No overall figure for size of flora, but 293 dicotyledon taxa, of which
88 are native (Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1979, cited in Appendix 1); one native cycad
(Cycas circinalis) and 10 native fern taxa (Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1982, cited in
Appendix 1). Most of the atolls are species-poor, the majority of plants having a
widespread distribution throughout the Pacific and Indian Oceans. No endemic ferns or
gymnosperms; 4 endemic Pandanus spp. (St John, 1960). Pokak, in the Ratak Chain, has
an endemic grass (Lepturus gassaparicensis) (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
Vegetation Small remnants of atoll/beach forest (mostly comprising pan-Pacific
species such as Pisonia grandis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Pandanus tectorius and Scaevola
spp.) on some northern atolls (e.g. Wotho, Ujae and some of the islets of Kwajalein);
small areas of mangrove forest on Jaluit, Ailinglapalap and Mejit (Dahl, 1980, cited in
Appendix 1). All the Marshall Islands have been greatly modified; most atolls have
coconut and breadfruit plantations and some islands have been drastically damaged by the
testing of atomic weapons. For an account of the condition and status of the forests see
Fosberg (1973), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras The Marshall Islands are included in Flora Micronesica
(Kanehira, 1933), the regional checklists of Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver (1979, 1982), and
will be covered by the Flora of Micronesia (1975- ), all cited in Appendix 1. Separate lists
for individual islands include:
Fosberg, F.R. (1955). Northern Marshalls expedition 1951-1952: land biota; vascular
plants. Atoll Res. Bull. 39. 22 pp. (Annotated list; notes on habitats, distribution.
For additions see ibid., 68. 9 pp., 1959.)
Fosberg, F.R. (1956). Military Geography of the Northern Marshalls. U.S. Army
Engineers and U.S. Geological Survey. 320 pp. (Describes 21 atolls, notes on
vegetation, lists about 150 species on 13 atolls.)
236
Marshall Islands
Fosberg, F.R. and Sachet, M.-H. (1962). Vascular plants recorded from Jaluit Atoll.
Atoll Res. Bull. 92. 39 pp.
Hatheway, W.H. (1953). The land vegetation of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands.
Scientific investigations in Micronesia. Atoll Res. Bull. 16. 68 pp. (Arno has c. 125
species of which 44 are native; all are wide-ranging species of the Pacific and Indian
Oceans.)
Koidzumi, G. (1915). The vegetation of Jaluit Island. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 29: 242-252.
(59 species listed; 40 indigenous, all of widespread distribution.)
Okabe, M. (1941). An enumeration of the plants collected in Marshall Islands. J. Jap.
Forestry Soc. 23: 261-272.
St John, H. (1951). Plant records from Aur Atoll and Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands,
Micronesia. Pacific Plant Studies 9. Pacific Science 5: 279-286. (Annotated list of 78
vascular plant taxa collected on the atolls, 43 indigenous.)
St John, H. (1960). Flora of Eniwetok Atoll. Pacific Science 14: 313-336. (95 taxa
recorded; 42 indigenous, 4 endemic pandans; includes keys and brief descriptions.)
Taylor, W.R. (1950). Plants of Bikini and Other Northern Marshall Islands. Ann
Arbor, Univ. of Michigan Press. 227 pp. (Results of investigations carried out
before the testing of atomic weapons.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Mauritania
Area 1,030,700 sq. km
Population 1,832,000
Floristics 1100 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1). Levels of
endemism not known, but probably low. Floristic affinities Saharan and Sahelian.
Vegetation Mostly desert and semi-desert, with little or no perennial vegetation.
As rainfall increases further south, semi-desert grassland grades into rather low wooded
grassland with Acacia tortilis, increasing in density and height, reaching 8 m or so high in
the extreme south. \
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Mauritania is included in Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977),
and in the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980). The tropical, southern part of Mauritania is included in
the Flora of West Tropical Africa. These are all cited in Appendix 1.
Adam, J.G. (1962). Itinéraires botaniques en Afrique occidentale; flore et végétation
d’hiver de la Mauritanie Occidentale. Les paturages. Inventaire des plantes signalées
en Mauritanie. J. Agric. Trop. Bot. Appl. 9: 85-200, 297-416. Also reprinted
separately by Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, according to Frodin.
(With 18 plates of black and white photographs.)
Monod, T. (1939). Phanérogams. In Contributions a l’Etude du Sahara Occidental,
vol. 2: 55-211. Larose, Paris. (Publications du Comité d’Etudes Historiques et
Scientifiques de l’Afrique Occidentale Francaise, Sér. B, No. 5, according to
Frodin.)
237
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of only 7 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
including R:3.
Additional References
Adam, J.G. (1968). La Mauritanie. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 49-51.
Audry, P. and Rossetti, C. (1962). Observations sur les Sols et la Végétation en
Mauritanie de Sud-Est et sur la Bordure Adjacente du Mali (1959 et 1961). Projet
Pélerin, Rapp. No. UNSF/DL/ES/3, FAO, Rome. 267 pp. (With 24 black and
white photographs.)
Monod, T. (1938). Notes botaniques sur le Sahara occidental et ses confins sahéliens.
Mém. Soc. Biogéogr. 6: 351-374.
Monod, T. (1952). Contribution a |’étude du peuplement de la Mauritanie. Notes
botaniques sur |’Adrar (Sahara Occidental). Bull. IFAN 14: 405-449; 16A: 1-48.
Murat, M. (1944). Esquisse phytogéographique du Sahara occidental. Remarques et
Commentaires par T. Monod, C. Rungs et C. Sauvage. Mém. Off. Nat. Anti-acrid.
1: 1-31.
Naegélé, A. (1958-1960). Contributions a |’étude de la flore et des groupements
végétaux de la Mauritanie. Bull. IFAN 20A: 293-305, 876-908; 21A: 1195-1204; 22A:
1231-1247. (Most of these have several black and white photographs.)
Roberty, G. (1958). Végétation de la guelta de Soungount (Mauritanie méridionale) en
mars 1955. Bull IFAN 20A: 869-875.
Rossetti, C. (1963). Observations sur la Végétation: Conclusions sur les Travaux
Entrepris en 1959 et 1961. Projet Pélerin, Rapp. No. UNSF/DL/ES/5, FAO, Rome.
71 pp.
Mauritius
The volcanic island of Mauritius, part of the Mascarenes group, lies some 840 km east of
Madagascar. It has very varied topography, with ranges of peaks, plateaux and low-lying
plains. The highest point is Piton de la Petite Riviére Noire, at 828 m, near the south-west
coast. Round Island is a small island of 1.6 sq. km 24 km north-east of Mauritius.
Area 1865 sq. km
Population 1,031,000 (including Rodrigues, g.v., and other dependencies)
Floristics 800-900 species (W. Strahm, 1984, in lJitt.), including 186 ferns
(Lorence, 1978); roughly a third of species endemic; eight endemic genera. Baker (1877,
cited in Appendix 1) gives 869 ‘wild’ vascular species.
46 species of ferns and flowering plants recorded from Round Island. 70 species of ferns,
fern allies and flowering plants recorded from Gunner’s Quoin, 28 of which also occur on
Round Island; 20 indigenous species and eight species endemic to the Mascarenes. (Bullock
et al., 1984.)
Floristically each island of the Mascarenes is related primarily to the others, but
relationships also exist with Madagascar (Melville, 1970, cited in Appendix 1), and,
somewhat remotely, with Malesia, India and Sri Lanka (M.J.E. Coode, 1984, pers.
comm.).
238
Mauritius
Vegetation Most of the island used to be covered with dense tropical evergreen
forest, with heath and dwarf forest at higher altitudes and palm savannas in the dry eastern
regions (Procter and Salm, 1975; Vaughan and Wiehe, 1937). Mauritius is now almost
totally devoid of indigenous vegetation. The best examples remaining are the patches of
upland forest around the Black River Gorges in the south-west.
More than 60% of the area of the island is under sugar cultivation, and tea and other
vegetables are also important. An additional cause of destruction of the indigenous
vegetation has been the super-abundance of exotic plants and animals introduced
deliberately or by accident, which prevent natural regeneration of the native species.
Round Island is now so badly degraded by introduced goats and rabbits that very little
vegetation of any sort remains on the island. Goats have been exterminated, but rabbits
continue to be a pest.
Checklists and Floras Mauritius is included in the incomplete Flore des
Mascareignes, and in the rather dated Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles (Baker, 1877),
both cited in Appendix 1.
Johnston, H.H. (1895). Additions to the Flora of Mauritius as recorded in Baker’s
‘Flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles’. Trans and Proc. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh 20:
391-407.
Field-guides
Cadet, L.J.T. (1981). Fleurs et Plantes de la Réunion et de I’Ile Maurice. Editions du
Pacifique, Tahiti. 131 pp. (Incomplete for indigenous flora.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Mauritius and Rodrigues, p. 103, by
A.W. Owadally, contains 34 species: E:12, V:2, R:18, 1:2.)
IUCN has records of 222 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic to Mauritius
— Ex:19, E:65, V:35, R:39, 1:14, K:11, nt:39. Non-endemic taxa rare or threatened
worldwide - Ex:1, E:8, V:15, R:9, I:3 (world categories). (Covers the 74 families in Flore
des Mascareignes (out of 203 in total), and some others as well, including Rubiaceae and
Myrtaceae.)
A Red Data Book for Mauritius is being written by W. Strahm as part of the IUCN/ WWF
Plants Programme (Project 3149).
Four species which occur in Mauritius are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book
(1978).
Laws Protecting Plants The Forests and Reserves Act (1983) gives general
protection to the island’s forest and reserves, and specific protection to all indigenous
orchids and ferns, species of three genera, and to five additional species.
Voluntary Organizations
Mauritius Wildlife Conservation Society.
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Gardens, Curepipe. (Belongs to Curepipe Municipality, but partly managed by
the Forestry Service, address below.)
Royal Botanic Gardens, Pamplemousses. (Mailing address: Chief Agricultural Officer,
Reduit.)
239
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Useful Addresses
Curator, Herbarium, Mauritius Sugar Industry Research Institute, Reduit.
CITES Management Authority: The Conservator of Forests, Forestry Service,
Curepipe.
Additional References
Bullock, D., North, S. and Greig, S. (Eds) (1984). Round Island Expedition 1982: final
report. Unpublished, but available from D. Bullock, Dept of Botany, St Andrews
KY16 9AL, Scotland. 123 pp. (Includes annotated ckecklists of plants from Round
Island and Gunner’s Quoin.)
Cadet, L.J.T. (1984). Plantes Rares ou Remarquables des Mascareignes. Agence de
Coopération Culturelle et Technique, 13 quai André-Citroén, 75015 Paris. 132 pp.
(With 48 photographs.)
Lorence, D. (1978). The pteridophytes of Mauritius (Indian Ocean): ecology and
distribution. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 76: 207-247.
Procter, J. and Salm, R. (1975). Conservation in Mauritius 1974. IUCN, Morges,
Switzerland. (Cyclostyled.)
Vaughan, R.E. and Wiehe, P.O. (1937). Studies on the vegetation of Mauritius, 1: A
preliminary survey of the plant communities. J. Ecol. 25: 289-343. (With vegetation
map, 20 plates of black and white photographs.)
Vaughan, R.E. and Wiehe, P.O. (1941). Studies on the vegetation of Mauritius, 3: The
structure and development of the upland climax forest. J. Ecol. 29: 127-160. (With 4
black and white photographs.)
Vaughan, R.E. (1968). Mauritius and Rodriguez. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 265-272.
Vinson, J. (1964). Sur la disparition progressive de la flore et de la faune de I’Ile
Ronde. Proc. Roy. Soc. Arts Sci. Mauritius 2: 247-261.
Mexico
Area 1,972,546 sq. km
Population 77,040,000
Floristics Due to its latitudinal and altitudinal range, Mexico contains a very
diverse flora of an estimated 20,000 vascular plant species (Rzedowski, 1978, Lot and
Toledo, 1980); 3376 endemic species (Toledo, 1984, pers. comm.); a meeting point of
boreal and tropical floras.
Vegetation Tropical and subtropical region (c. one third of Mexico, mainly on
the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards south of the tropic of Cancer and east of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec): Rain forests, the northernmost in the Americas, once formed a continuous
corridor from Veracruz to Chiapas, covering 6% of Mexico; half of them now destroyed,
the largest remaining being the 13,000 sq. km Lacandon Forest along the Guatemala
border, now partly protected (Estrada and Coates-Estrada, 1983). Where rainfall is lower
and the winter dry season more pronounced, the forest canopy is lower and the percentage
of deciduous species increases sharply. Low deciduous forest (Selva Baja Caducifolia),
with many broadleaved species to c. 15 m tall, occupies 16% of the area.
240
Mexico
Temperate region (one third of Mexico), occupying the main cordilleras: The principal
forest is of pines (Pinus spp.) and oaks (Quercus spp.) in varying proportions and with
numerous constituent species. In the higher parts of the cordilleras, to 3300 m, forests of
silver fir (Abies spp.). In all, these vegetation types occupy about 15% of Mexico.
Semi-arid and arid zone, also about a third of Mexico, mainly in the north and centre
(Sonoran and Chihuahuan desert regions and central altiplano): Mostly open shrubland
(matorral), the principal variants dominated by (i) small-leaved shrubs, (ii) cacti, and (iii)
xerophytic monocotyledons (Agave, Yucca, Dasylirion, Nolina spp., Bromeliaceae).
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 4700 sq. km/annum, out of
a total of 265,700 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras The tropical part of Mexico, principally east of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project, described in Appendix 1;
the part south of the Tropic of Cancer by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). State and regional Floras are:
Flora de Veracruz (1978- ). (Various authors). Instituto de Investigaciones sobre
Recursos Bidticos (INIREB). 39 family fascicles so far. (The output of a substantial
project to provide a database on Veracruz flora, described by Gdmez-Pompa et al.,
1984, cited under ‘Additional References’, below.)
Flora of Chiapas (1981- ). (Various authors). Published by the California Academy of
Sciences, two parts completed so far: 1 - introduction and descriptions of vegetation
types and their endemics, by D.E. Breedlove (1981, 35 pp.); 2 - ferns, by A. Smith
(609 species). (Breedlove, 1981, refers to 8200 vascular plant species recorded from
Chiapas; ‘‘the number ... will probably climb to between 9000 and 10,000 by the
time the entire Flora is published’’.)
Flora Yucatanense project. Edited by V. Sosa, INIREB, Calle 43 No 506, Apdo Postal
281, CP 97000, Mérida, Yucatan. (2100 species - Toledo, 1985, cited in Appendix 1,
quoting Sosa, pers. comm.)
Johnston, M.C., Henrickson, J. et al. (in press). Chihuahuan Desert Flora. Prepared at
Dept of Botany, University of Texas at Austin, Texas, U.S.A. (About 3000 species
of vascular plants, from southern New Mexico to San Luis Potosi.)
McVaugh, R. (1974- ). Flora Novo-Galiciana. University of Michigan. 17 vols planned,
by various authors. Gramineae (Vol. 14) published; Compositae (12) to be
completed in late 1984, Orchidaceae (16) in 1985, Leguminosae (5) in 1986. (Covers
Mexican states of Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Colima, and parts of Nayarit, Durango,
Zacatecas, Guanajuato and Michoacan.)
Martinez, M. and Matuda, E. (1953-1972). Flora del Estado de México. Many
separates, reissued as 3 vols by Biblioteca Enciclopédica del Estado de México, 1979.
Rzedowski, J. and Rzedowski, G.C. de (1979- ). Flora Fanerogdmica del Valle de
México. Ed. Continental, México. Vol. 1 (introductory, gymnosperms, dicotyledons
Saururaceae to Polygalaceae) published, Vol. 2 in press, Vol. 3 in prep.
Sanchez Sanchez, O. (1968). La Flora de Valle de México. Herrero, México. 519 pp.
Shreve, F. and Wiggins, I.L. (1964). Vegetation and Flora of the Sonoran Desert,
2 vols. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford. 1740 pp. (Vegetation types and
representative species, vegetation map.)
Wiggins, I.L. (1980). Flora of Baja California. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford.
1025 pp. (2705 species with 686 endemic taxa.)
See also:
241
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Bravo-Hollis, H. (1978- ). Las Cactdceas de México, Ed. 2. Vol. 1. Univ. Nacional
Autonoma de México. 743 pp. Vol. 2 in press.
Cowan, C.P. (1983). Listados Floristicos de México. I. Flora de Tabasco. Instituto de
Biologia, UNAM, México. (Checklist with cited specimens.)
Gentry, H.S. (1942). Rio Mayo Plants: A Study of the Flora and Vegetation of the
Valley of the Rio Mayo, Sonora. Carnegie Institution Publication 527, Washington,
D.C. 328 pp. (Annotated list of 1276 species.)
Gentry, H.S. (1982). Agaves of Continental North America. Univ. Arizona Press,
Tucson, Arizona. 670 pp.
Lundell, C.L. (1942). Flora of eastern Tabasco and adjacent Mexican areas. Contrib.
Univ. Mich. Herb. 8: 1-74. (Annotated list of c. 700 species.)
Martinez, M. (1963). Las Pindceas Mexicanas, 3rd Ed. Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de México. 401 pp.
Pennington, T.D. and Sarukhan, J. (1968). Los Arboles Tropicales de México.
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, México and FAO, Rome. 413 pp.
Sousa S., M. and Cabrera C., E.F. (1983). Listados Floristicos de México. II. Flora de
Quintana Roo. Instituto de Biologia, UNAM, México. (Checklist with cited
specimens.)
Standley, P.C. (1920-1926). Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb.
23(1-5). 1721 pp.
Standley, P.C. (1930). Flora of Yucatan. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 3(3):
157-492. (Annotated list of 1263 plants.)
Tellez V., O and Sousa S., M. (1982). Imagenes de la Flora Quintanarroense. Centro
de Investigaciones de Quintana Roo, Puerto Morelo, Q.R.
Williams, L.O. (1951). The Orchidaceae of Mexico. Ceiba 2(1): 1-321. (600 species.)
Selected bibliographies:
Jones, G.N. (1966). An Annotated Bibliography of Mexican Ferns. Univ. Illinois Press,
Urbana. 297 pp. (1200 author entries.)
Langman, I.K. (1964). A Selected Guide to the Literature of the Flowering Plants of
Mexico. Univ. Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. 1015 pp.
The National Council of the Flora of Mexico, which includes about 40 institutions, is
promoting and co-ordinating a catalogue of Mexican plants (Flora de México Project).
Field-guides
Clark, P. (1972). A Flower Lover’s Guide to Mexico. Minutiae Mexicana, México:
128 pp. (Guide to common species.)
Coyle, J. and Roberts, N.C. (1975). A Field Guide to the Common and Interesting
Plants of Baja California. Natural History Publishing Co., La Jolla, Calif. 206 pp.
(259 plants, endemics indicated.)
Tellez Valdes, O. and Sousa Sanchez, M. (1982). Imagenes de la flora Quintanarroense.
Puerto Morelos, Centro de Investigaciones de Quintana Roo, A.C. (116 of known
1300 species described, illus.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. The
most comprehensive list published so far is that of Vovides (1981), see below. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The list of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa - Ex:8, E:72, V:176, R:320, 1:66, K:2084, nt:732; non-endemics rare
or threatened worldwide - E:3, V:22, R:36, I:4 (world categories).
Threatened plants are mentioned in several papers in:
242
Mexico
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular J.T.
Mickel on rare and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore on endangerment
in palms (pp. 267-282), P. Ravenna on endangered bulbous plants (pp. 257-266),
and A.P. Vovides and A. Gdmez-Pompa (cited below).
Other relevant publications:
Anon (1979). Especies en peligro de extincién. Macpalxochitl, Bol. Bimestral de Soc.
Bot. México 79: 3-4. (24 taxa listed.)
Howard, T.M. (1981). Current status of some endangered Mexican Hymenocallis
species. Pl. Life 37(1-4): 157-158.
Hunt, D.R. (1982). The conservation status of Mexican Mammillarias: a preliminary
assessment. Cact. Succ. J. Great Britain 44(4): 87-88. (IUCN categories assigned to
each of 233 taxa.)
Perez D., J.F. (1982). Especies amenazadas y en peligro de extincién de la peninsula de
Baja California. Publ. Espec. Inst. Nacion. Invest. Forest. México 37: 62-67.
Pina, I. (1980). Rare and threatened Agavaceae and Cactaceae of Mexico. Sociedad
Mexicana Cactologia. (Unpublished.)
Rzedowski, J. (1979a). Extincién de especies vegetales. In Rzedowski, J. and G. (Eds),
Flora Fanerogamica del Valle de México: Vol. 1. Cited under Checklists and Floras,
above. Pp. 42-45.
Rzedowski, J. (1979b). Deterioro de la Flora. Memorias sobre Problemas Ambientales
en Mexico. Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Escuela de Ciencias Biolégicas.
Pp. 51-57.
Toledo, V.M. (1985). Criterios fitogeograficos para la conservacion de la flora de
México. In Gomez, L.D. (Ed.), Memorias del Simposio de Biogeografia de
Mesoamerica. In press.
Vovides, A.P. (1981). Lista preliminar de plantas Mexicanas raras o en peligro de
extinciOn. Bidtico 6(2): 219-228. (Preliminary list of 210 rare, threatened and
endangered species.)
Vovides, A.P. and Gomez-Pompa, A. (1977). The problems of threatened and
endangered plant species of Mexico. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977),
cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 77-88.
Laws Protecting Plants No information. The U.S. Government has determined
Abies guatemalensis (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras) as ‘Threatened’
under the U.S. Endangered Species ahi
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacién Mexicana de Orquideologia A.C., Apdo Postal 53-123, 11320 México 17,
D.F.
Pronatura A.C., Apdo Postal 20-768, Del. Alvaro Obregén, 01000 México, D.F.
Sociedad Botanica de México, Apto Postal 70-385, México 200, D.F.
Sociedad Mexicana de Cactologia A.C., 2a Juarez 42, Col. San Alvaro, Deleg.
Azcapotzalco, 02090 México, D.F.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico, Centro de Investigacién Cientifico de Yucatan, Mérida, Yucatan.
Jardin Botanico, Centro de Investigaciénes de Quintana Roo, 77500 Puerto Morales,
Quintana Roo.
Jardin Botanico, Escuela Nacional de Ensefiaza Profesional, Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de México, Ixtapalapa.
243
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Jardin Botanico, La Estacion de Biologia Tropical ‘‘Los Tuxtlas’’, Instituto de
Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Municipio de San Andres
Tuxtla, Catemaco, Veracruz.
Jardin Botanico ‘‘Francisco J. Clavijero’’, INIREB, Km 2.5 Antigua Carretera A.
Coatepec, 91000 Xalapa, Veracruz.
Jardin Botanico, INIREB, Km 7, Camino San Cristobal de Las Casas a Comitan, San
Cristobal de Las Casas, Chiapas.
Jardin Botanico, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas.
Jardin Botanico, Universidad Auténoma Agraria ‘‘Antonio Narro’’, Buenavista,
Saltillo, Coahuila.
Jardin Botanico, Departamento de Difusion y Ensefianza, Universidad Nacional
Auténoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Deleg. Coycoacan, 04510 México, D.F.
Jardin Botanico Medicinal, Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Histéria, Matamoros
200, Colonia Acapanzingo, Cuernavaca, Morelos.
A Union of Mexican Botanical Gardens has recently been formed.
Index of threatened plants in cultivation:
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1985). The Botanic
Gardens List of Rare and Threatened Species of Mexican Cacti. Botanic Gardens
Conservation Co-ordinating Body, Report No. 13. IUCN, Kew. 25 pp. (Lists all
but 20 of 301 rare, threatened and insufficiently known taxa reported in cultivation,
with gardens listed against each.)
Useful Addresses
Direccién General de Flora y Fauna Silvestres, Netzahuackoyotl No. 109, 1° Piso,
Deleg. Cuauhtemoc, 06080 México, D.F.
Herbario Nacional de México, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México (UNAM),
Apdo Postal 70-367, México 20, D.F.
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bidticos (INIREB), P.O. Box 63,
Xalapa, Veracruz.
Additional References
Avila, J.A.R., Calderon, G. and Chapa, H. (1961). Los recursos naturales de México;
estado actual de las investigaciones de hidrologia y pesca. Instituto Mexicana de
Recursos Naturales Renovables. 421 pp.
Estrada, A. and Coates-Estrada, R. (1983). Rain forest in Mexico: research and
conservation at Los Tuxtlas. Oryx 17: 201-204.
Flores Mata, G. et al. (1971). Mapa de Tipos de Vegetacion de la Republica Méxicana.
Secretaria de Recursos Hidraulicos, México. Map (1:2,000,000), with explanatory
text.
Gomez-Pompa, A. (1973). Ecology of the vegetation of Veracruz. In Graham, A. (Ed.)
(1973), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 73-148.
Gomez-Pompa, A., Moreno, N.P., Gama, L., Sosa, V. and Allkin, R. (1984). Flora of
Veracruz: Progress and prospects. In Allkin, R. and Bisby, F.A. (Eds), Databases in
Systematics. Academic Press, London. Pp. 165-174. (Systematics Assoc. Special
Vol. No. 26.)
Hagsater, E. (1976). Orchids and conservation in Mexico. Orchid Review 84: 39-42.
Lot, A. and Toledo, V.M. (1980). Hacia una Flora de México: vamos por buen
camino. Macpalxochitl 88/89: 1-31.
244
Mexico
McCullough, R. (1981). Mexico and its orchids. In Stewart, J. and van der Merwe,
C.N. (Eds), Proceedings of the 10th World Orchid Conference. South African
Orchid Council, Johannesburg. Pp. 111-114.
Miranda, F. and Hernandez, E. (1963). Los tipos de vegetacidn de México y su
clasificacién. Bol. Soc. Bot. Méx. 28: 29-179.
Pesman, M.W. (1962). Meet Flora Mexicana. Northland Press, Flagstaff, Arizona.
278 pp. (2nd Ed. by R. Bye and E. Linares Mazari in press.)
Rzedowski, J. (1966). Vegetacién de Estado de San Luts Potosi. Universidad
Autonoma de San Luis Potosi, México. 291 pp. (Vegetation zones and
representative species.)
Rzedowski, J. (1978). Vegetaciédn de México. Editorial Limusa, México. 432 pp.
Midway Islands
Midway (5 sq. km), an unincorporated territory of the United States, lies 1850 km north-
west of the Hawaiian Islands, in the central Pacific Ocean, at latitude 28°12’N, longitude
177°24’W. It is an atoll with 2 islets, Eastern Island (135 ha) and Sand Island (384 ha)
surrounding a lagoon. The population is over 2220 (1970). The vegetation includes
extensive Casuarina plantations, Scaevola and Boerhavia scrub. 90 vascular plant species,
most of which have been recently introduced (Neff and DuMont, 1955). Military activity
and the construction of air and submarine bases has greatly modified the vegetation.
References
Neff, J.A. and DuMont, P.A. (1955). A partial list of the plants of the Midway
Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 45. 11 pp.
Minami-Tori-Shima
Minami-Tori-Shima (Marcus Island) is a raised coral atoll with a fringing reef, of area
300 ha, situated 965 km east south-east of the Ogasawara Islands in the north-west Pacific
at 24°14’N and 154°E. It is a Japanese dependency. Following extensive levelling, the
highest point on the island is 7 m. The vegetation, which has been greatly modified by war
damage and construction works, consists mainly of Tournefortia and Pisonia scrub.
Papayas and bananas have been introduced (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
The flora consists of widespread angiosperms, including 18 dicotyledon taxa, of which 9
are indigenous (Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1979, cited in Appendix 1); 4 species of
monocotyledons (Sakagami, 1961). There are no endemics.
References
Sakagami, S.F. (1961). An ecological perspective of Marcus Island, with special
reference to land animals. Pacific Science 15: 82-104. (Includes plant list, notes on
vegetation.)
245
Mongolia
Area 1,565,000 sq. km
Population 1,851,000
Floristics 2272 vascular plant species; of these 229 endemic and a further 143
species restricted to Mongolia and the adjacent territories of Inner Mongolia, Altai and
Tuva in the U.S.S.R., and Dzungaria in China (V.I. Grubov, 1984, in litt.).
Vegetation Almost 90% grassland, semi-desert and desert; c. 10% forested,
mainly of larch, cedar and pine. In the south, the vast Gobi Desert covers c. 1,300,000 sq.
km, and supports sparse scrub with Artemisia, Ephedra and Haloxylon; in the west, the
vegetation cover is less than 5% and is mainly Nitraria scrub; on dunes above 10 m there is
no plant life at all. The only natural forests of the Gobi are in the west, around Ala Shan,
where Populus diversifolia and Tamarix spp. are found along river banks. Northern
Mongolia has semi-deserts and grass steppes.
Checklists and Floras
Grubov, V.I. (1955). Konspeckt Flory Mongol’skoi Narodnoi Respubliki. Mongolian
Commission. 307 pp. (Annotated checklist of 1875 species.)
Grubov, V.I. (1972). Additions and corrections to the ‘‘Concised Flora of the
Mongolian People’s Republic’. Novitates Syst. Plantarum Vascularium 9: 275-305.
(Enumeration of 133 species described since Grubov, 1955.)
Grubov, V.I. (1982). Key to the Vascular Plants of Mongolia (with an Atlas). Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad. 441 pp. (In Russian.)
Mongolia is also covered in Grubov (1963- ) and by the Flora of the Mongolian Steppe
and Desert Areas (Norlindh, 1949), cited in full in Appendix 1. See also:
Inner Mongolia Botanical Records Compiling Group (1977-1982). Flora
Intramongolica, 6 vols. Typis Intramongolicae Popularis, Huhhot. (In Chinese.)
Information on Threatened Plants IUCN has a preliminary list, compiled by V.I.
Grubovy, which includes 11 threatened plants, of which one is endemic to Mongolia, and a
further 10 species are also found in Inner Mongolia (China).
Gubanov, I.A. (1982). Zametki o redkikh rasteniyakh Mongolii (Notices on rare plants
of Mongolia). Byull. Most. Obshch. Ispyt. Prir. Biol. 87(\): 122-129. (In Russian.)
Botanic Gardens
Botanic Garden, The Academy of Sciences of the MPR Institute of Botany, Ulan
Bator.
Additional References
Printz, H. (1921). The Vegetation of the Siberian-Mongolian Frontiers (The Sayansk
Region). Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab. 458 pp. (Includes
enumeration of plants in region.)
Walker, E.H. (1941). Plants collected by R.C. Ching in southern Mongolia and Kansu
Province, China. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 28(4): 563-675.
246
Montserrat
Montserrat is a Dependent Territory of the United Kingdom, in the Leeward Islands of the
Eastern Caribbean, 43.5 km north-west of Antigua. It is a small island of 104 sq. km and
with a population of 13,000. It consists of a serrated range of volcanic peaks; the Soufriére
is still active. It has among the best natural vegetation in the Leewards: high forest
practically non-existent due to cultivation to near summits and hurricane activity but
secondary rain forest to summit peaks; palm brake and elfin woodland along ridges;
secondary thickets of young trees and dry scrub woodland below; north slopes of hills
better wooded than south slopes due to favourable moist conditions; 40% forested
according to FAO (1974, cited in Appendix 1). For botanical information, see the account
for Antigua and Barbuda.
R.A. Howard is preparing a checklist of the flora for Montserrat National Trust,
Plymouth, Montserrat.
Morocco
Area 659,970 sq. km
Population 22,848,000
Floristics 3500 species (Le Houérou, 1975); 3600 species (Lebrun, 1976, cited in
Appendix 1); 3700 species (Sauvage, 1975). 600-650 endemic species estimated, of which
c. 170 are from the high Moroccan Atlas (Quézel, 1978, cited in Appendix 1); IUCN
figures, from existing Floras, record 537 endemic taxa.
Flora in north and centre of Morocco with Mediterranean affinities; Saharan flora along
southern border; transition zone between the two.
Vegetation Desert along southern border, with little or no perennial vegetation.
Semi-desert and transition from Mediterranean scrubland to succulent semi-desert
shrubland along west coast and in east-central part of country. Mediterranean
sclerophyllous forest in band along north coast and at lower altitudes on the Atlas
mountains. Mediterranean montane forest, altimontane shrubland and Cedrus forests on
the Atlas mountains.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Morocco is included in the incomplete Flore de l’Afrique
du Nord, the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980), Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and is being covered in
Med-Checklist. These are all cited in Appendix 1.
Jahandiez, E. and Maire, R. (1931-1941). Catalogue des Plantes du Maroc, 4 vols.
Alger. (Annotated checklist; 4th vol. by M.L. Emberger and R. Maire. For
additions see Sauvage, C. and Vindt, J. (1949-1956), 4 papers in Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat.
Maroc 29: 131-162, 32: 27-51, 34: 217-234, 36: 185-222.)
Négre, R. (1961, 1962). Petite Flore des Régions Arides du Maroc Occidental, 2 vols.
CNRS, Paris. 413, 566 pp. (Covers only west-central Morocco; keys, descriptions,
distributions, line drawings, and several colour photographs.)
247
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Sauvage, C. (1961). Flore des subéraies marocaines: catalogue des cryptogames
vasculaires et des phanérogames. Trav. Inst. Sci. Chérif., Sér. Bot. 22. 252 pp.
Sauvage, C. and Vindt, J. (1952, 1954). Flore du Maroc, analytique, descriptive et
illustrée. Trav. Inst. Sci. Chérif. 4 and Ibid., Sér. Bot. 3. (Incomplete, covering only
Ericaceae to Boraginaceae.)
Field-guides
Emberger, L. (1938). Les Arbres du Maroc et Comment Les Reconnaitre. Larose,
Paris. 317 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants Morocco is included in the draft list for North
Africa and the Middle East produced by IUCN Threatened Plants Committee Secretariat
(1980), cited in Appendix 1.
Mathez, J., Quézel, P. and Raynard, C. (1985). The Maghrib countries. In Gémez-
Campo, C. (Ed.), Plant Conservation in the Mediterranean Area.
Sauvage, C. (1959). Au sujet de quelques plantes rares et menacées de la flore du
Maroc. In Animaux et Végétaux Rares de la Région Méditerranéenne. Proceedings
of the IUCN 7th Technical Meeting, 11-19 September 1958, Athens, vol. 5. IUCN,
Brussels. Pp. 156-158.
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - E:1, V:3, R:162, 1:23, K:54, nt:294. Non-endemic
taxa rare or threatened worldwide - V:2 (world category).
Botanic Gardens
Institut Scientifique Chérifien, Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, Avenue Moulay Chérif,
Rabat.
Jardins Exotiques de Rabat-Sale, km 13 Route No. 2 par Sale, Rabat.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Comité national de l’Environnement, Division de
l’environnement, Direction de l’aménagement du territoire Ministére de |’habitat et
de l’aménagement du territoire, B.P. 600, Rabat.
Correspondence to:
Administration des Eaux et Foréts et de la Conservation des Sols, Division de la
Protection de la Nature, Ministére de |’Agriculture et de la Réforme Agraire, Rabat.
Additional References
Braun-Blanquet, J. and Maire, R. (1924). Etudes sur la végétation et la flore
marocaines. Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Maroc 8(1). 244 pp. (20 black and white
photographs.)
Emberger, L. (1939). Apercu général sur la végétation du Maroc. In Riibel, E. and
Liidi, W. (Eds), Ergebnisse der internationalen pflanzengeographischen Exkursion
durch Marokko und Westalgerian 1936. Verdff. Geobot. Inst. Ziirich 14: 40-157.
(With coloured vegetation map 1:1,500,000.) (Published also as an out-of-series
number of Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Maroc.)
Froédin, J. (1923). Recherches sur la végétation du Haut Atlas. Lunds Univ. Arsskr.,
N.F., Avd. 2, 19(4): 1-24.
Ionesco, T. and Sauvage, C. (1962). Les types de végétation du Maroc. Essai de
nomenclature et de définition. Rev. Géogr. Maroc. 1-2: 75-83.
Le Houérou, H.-N. (1975). Etude préliminaire sur la compatibilité des flores nord-
africaine et palestinienne. In CNRS (1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 345-350.
248
Morocco
Maire, R. (1924). Etudes sur la végétation et la flore du Grand Atlas et du Moyen
Atlas marocains. Mém. Soc. Sci. Nat. Maroc 7. 220 pp. (32 black and white
photographs.)
Mathez, J. (1973). Nouveaux matériaux pour la Flore du Maroc. Fasc. 2. Contribution
a l’étude de la flore de la région d’Ifni. Trav. RCP 249(1): 105-120. CNRS, Paris.
Négre, R. (1959). Recherches phytogéographiques sur |’étage de végétation
méditérranéen aride (sous-étage chaud) au Maroc occidental. Trav. Inst. Sci.
Chérif., Sér. Bot. 13. 385 pp. (With coloured vegetation map 1:500,000; 16 black
and white photographs.)
Sauvage, C. (1975). L’état actuel de nos connaissances sur la flore du Maroc. In CNRS
(1975), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 131-139.
Mozambique
Area 784,754 sq. km
Population 13,693,000
Floristics 5500 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1960, cited in Appendix 1). Brenan
(1978, cited in Appendix 1) estimates 219 endemic species, from a sample of Flora
Zambesiaca. Northern part of coast especially rich in local endemics because of extension
of coastal mosaic south from Tanzania.
Inland flora predominantly Zambezian, with Afromontane elements on high ground. The
flora of a broad band along the coast is part of the so-called Zanzibar-Inhambane region,
which extends from southern Mozambique to southern Somalia; it has substantial floristic
affinities with the Guinea-Congolian region of central and western tropical Africa.
Vegetation Predominantly dry Brachystegia-Julbernardia (Miombo) woodland,
but wetter Miombo in the north and large areas of Colophospermum mopane (Mopane)
woodland along the Zambezi and Limpopo valleys in the north-west and south. Also
woodland without characteristic dominants in extreme south and in centre of country.
Coastal strip occupied by East African coastal mosaic consisting of a rather dry woodland
with abundant Adansonia, ae and Commiphora; also abundant mangrove forests.
Montane communities confined to the border with eastern Zimbabwe. Estimated rate of
deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 100 sq. km/annum out of 9350 sq. km
(FAO/UNEP, 1981).
For vegetation maps see Wild and Barbosa (1967, 1968), and White (1983), both cited in
Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Mozambique is included in the incomplete Flora
Zambesiaca, cited in Appendix 1.
Fernandes, A. and Mendes, E.J. (Eds) (1969- ). Flora de Mocambique. Junta de
Investigacdes Cientificas do Ultramar, Lisboa. (Incomplete: 64 families plus
Pteridophytes published, c. 55% of it, so far.)
Gomes e Sousa, A. (1966, 1967). Dendrologia de Mocambique, 2 vols. Instituto de
Investigagao Agronémica de Mocambique. 822 pp. (Numerous black and white
photographs and line drawings.)
249
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants; IUCN has records of 195 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic,
including E:6, V:5, R:59, 1:15, nt:19.
Botanic Gardens
Departamento de Botanica, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane/Biologia, C.P. 257,
Maputo.
Jardim Municipal, Camara Municipal, Lourenco Marques.
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority (Plants): Unidad de Direccao de Florestal, Maputo.
CITES Scientific Authority (Plants): Instituto Nacional de Investigacéo Agronémica,
P.O. Box 3656, Maputo.
Additional References
Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1968). Mocambique. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 224-232.
Bruton, M.N. (1981). Major threat to the coastal dune forest in Maputoland. The
Naturalist (South Africa) 25(1): 26-27. (Discusses invasion by Bardados Gooseberry.)
Mendonca, F.A. (1952/1955). The vegetation of Mozambique. Lejeunia 16: 127-135.
Pedro, J. Gomes and Barbosa, L.A. Grandvaux (1955). A vegetacao. In Esbo¢o do
Reconhecimento Ecolégico-Agricola de Mocambique, Mems Trab. Cent. Invest.
Cient. Algod. 23(2): 67-224. (With coloured vegetation map 1:2,000,000.)
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Namibia
Area 824,293 sq. km
Population 1,507,000
Floristics 3159 species (Merxmiiller, 1966-1972). Unknown levels of endemism,
but 11 taxa endemic to the Brandberg (Nordenstam, 1974).
The flora of the north-eastern part bordering Angola has Zambezian affinities. The flora
of the Namib desert along the coast is related to the flora of the Karoo further south. Most
of the centre of the country has a flora transitional between the two, the so-called
Kalahari-Highveld transition zone, with affinities with the Kalahari flora.
Vegetation Vegetation predominantly of a dry type. Rainfall decreases from the
north-east to the coastal Namib desert and to the south. In the north-east corner mosaic of
dry deciduous forest (rich in species) and transition from woodland without characteristic ©
dominants to Acacia deciduous bushland and wooded grassland. Large areas of Kalahari
Acacia wooded grassland and deciduous bushland, sand dunes with sparse grass-
land/wooded grassland, Colophospermum mopane woodland, scrub woodland (including
the swampy Etosha pan), and shrubland. Parallel with the coast: band of bushy shrubland
and, along the coast, the Namib desert. This is almost devoid of vegetation, but includes
the desert gymnosperm Welwitschia mirabilis.
For vegetation map see White (1983), and for vegetation map of Caprivi Strip only see
Wild and Barbosa (1967, 1968). Both are cited in Appendix 1.
250
Namibia
Checklists and Floras Namibia is included in the incomplete Flora of Southern
Africa, and in The Genera of Southern African Flowering Plants (Dyer, 1975, 1976), both
cited in Appendix 1. The Caprivi Strip is included in Flora Zambesiaca, cited in Appendix
1. See also:
Merxmiiller, H. (1966-1972). Prodromus einer Flora von Stidwest-afrika, 35 fasc.
Cramer, Lehre. (Keys, descriptions, distributions, specimens. For additions see
Roessler, H. and Merxmiiller, H. (1976). Nachtrage zum Prodromus einer Flora von
Siidwestafrika. Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Miinchen 12: 361-373.)
Nordenstam, B. (1970). Notes on the flora and vegetation of Etosha Pan, South West
Africa. Dinteria 5: 3-18. (Includes list of 134 species.)
Nordenstam, B. (1974). The flora of the Brandberg. Dinteria 11: 3-67. (Annotated
checklist of 337 species.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Hall, A.V. et al. (1980), cited in Appendix 1. (List for Namibia, p. 78, contains 12
endemic: R:4, I:3, K:5 and 44 non-endemic: V:2 (regional category), R:17, 1:3, K:22
species and infraspecific taxa.)
IUCN has records of 31 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; most are
succulents. (R:4, 1:4, K:23.)
Laws Protecting Plants 49 taxa (mostly whole genera but including all orchids)
are specifically protected under Ordinance No. 4 of 1975 (Nature Conservation
Ordinance). This also prohibits the picking of any indigenous plant without written
permission from the owner of the land.
Useful Addresses
Dept of Agriculture and Nature Conservation, Private Bag x13306, Windhoek 9000.
Additional References
Giess, W. (1962). Some notes on the vegetation of the Namib Desert. Cimbebasia 2:
1-35. (Includes annotated list of plants; black and white photographs throughout.)
Giess, W. (1971). A preliminary vegetation map of South West Africa. Dinteria 4:
5-114. (Includes 70 black and white photographs and coloured vegetation map
1:3,000,000.)
Giess, W. and Tinley, K.L. (1968). South West Africa. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968),
cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 250-253.
Werger, M.J.A. (1978), cited in Appendix 1. Citation includes list of relevant chapters.
Nauru
A raised limestone island of 20.7 sq. km in the west-central Pacific Ocean at 0°31’S,
160°56’E. Population 8000. The highest point is 71 m surrounded by a terrace and fringing
reef. Vegetation of mixed plateau forest, dominated by Calophyllum; a few remaining
areas of atoll forest, with Pandanus and Cocos (Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1).
About two-thirds of the island has been mined for phosphates.
4 native fern species, no gymnosperms (Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1982, cited in
Appendix 1); no figure for monocotyledons but 87 dicotyledon taxa, of which 35 native
251
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
(Fosberg, Sachet and Oliver, 1979, cited in Appendix 1). One endemic, an undescribed
Phyllanthus.
Nauru will be covered by the Flora of Micronesia (1975- ), cited in Appendix 1.
Navassa Island
A 3.5 sq. km islet, belonging to U.S.A., at 18°25’N, 75°00’W, 50 km west of the western
extremity of Hispaniola in the West Indies. Uninhabited except for lighthouse staff and a
large introduced population of goats; no streams or rivers.
102 species of vascular plants, 44 possibly indigenous to the island and only 4 species of
trees (Ekman, 1929).
The island rises abruptly from the sea to a table-land. Towards the margin of the table-
land forest of low stunted trees; in centre, grass savanna; on lower terraces, similar but
more stunted savanna, with cacti and shrubs, usually less than 30 cm (Ekman, 1929).
Ekman, E.L. (1929). Plants of Navassa Island, West Indies. Arkiv for Botanik
22A(16): 1-12. Plates.
Nepal
Area 141,414 sq. km
Population 16,107,000
Floristics An estimated 6500 species of flowering plants of which c. 315 endemic;
30 species of gymnosperms, and c. 450 species of ferns (Hara et al., 1978). Many endemics
in Western Himalaya do not extend into the wetter Eastern Himalaya (Stainton, 1972).
Sino-Japanese floristic elements in east and centre; western Himalayan and Mediterranean
elements in west; central Asiatic elements north to Himalayan foothills; Indo-Gangetic
elements in southern Himalayan foothills and in the plains (Terai).
Vegetation Tropical moist deciduous or Sal (Shorea robusta) forest in northern
Terai and valleys of Churia hills below 1000 m, little remaining; tropical evergreen rain
forest along river valleys below 1000 m, the richest forests being those in the east;
subtropical mixed broadleaved forest (1000-2000 m) with Schima-Castanopsis in east, dry
oak forest in centre, and Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest in west; moist temperate
broadleaved forest, with laurel, evergreen oak and rhododendron at 1500-3000 m, in east
and centre; mixed coniferous forests on Churia hills, Mahabharat range (1000-1800 m) and
southern Himalayas (above 2450 m). Subalpine forests occur around 3500 m; alpine scrub
dominated by birch and rhododendron, and alpine meadows at 4000-4500 m; alpine
steppes north of Dhaulagiri-Annapurna massif (Stainton, 1972). Estimated rate of
deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 800 sq. km/annum out of a total of 16,100 sq.
km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
252
Nepal
Checklists and Floras No modern Flora, but see the Flora of British India
(Hooker, 1872-1897), cited in Appendix 1. For ferns see Beddome (1892) and, Nayar and
Kaur (1972), cited in Appendix 1. Recent checklists of the flora are:
Flora of Eastern Himalaya (1966-1975), 3 vols, by H. Hara (vols 1-2) and H. Ohashi
(vol. 3), cited in full in Appendix 1.
Hara, H. et al. (1978-1982). An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants of Nepal, 3 vols.
British Museum (Natural History), London. (1 - gymnosperms, monocotyledons,
including keys and notes on distribution; 2-3 - dicotyledons. Vols 1 and 2 by
H. Hara, W.T. Stearn and L.H.J. Williams; vol. 3 by H. Hara, A.O. Chater and
L.H.J. Williams.)
Other relevant literature:
Banerji, M.L. (1965). Contributions to the Flora of East Nepal. Rec. Bot. Survey India
19(2). 90 pp. (Enumeration of 583 dicotyledons; introductory notes on vegetation.)
Kitamura, S. (1955). Flowering plants and ferns. In Kihara, H. (Ed.), Fauna and Flora
of Nepal Himalaya: Scientific Results of the Japanese Expeditions to Nepal
Himalaya 1952-1953, 1. Fauna and Flora Research Society, Kyoto. Pp. 73-290.
(Annotated checklist of 34 ferns, 14 gymnosperms and 910 angiosperms; notes on
vegetation.)
Malla, S.B., Shrestha, A.B., Rajbhandari, S.B., Shrestha, T.B., Adhikari, P.M. and
Adhikari, S.R. (Eds) (1976). Flora of Langtang and Cross Section Vegetation Survey
(Central Zone). Bull. Dept of Medicinal Plants no. 6, Kathmandu. 269 pp.
(Enumeration of 911 vascular species; northern half of area covered by Langtang
National Park; detailed analysis of vegetation types.)
An earlier list, covering about half the flora is:
Malla, S.B., Shrestha, A.B., Rajbhandari, S.B., Shrestha, T.B., Adhikari, P.M., and
Adhikari, S.R. (1976). Catalogue of Nepalese Vascular Plants. Bull. Dept Medicinal
Plants no. 7, Kathmandu. 211 pp. (Lists 308 ferns and fern allies, 24 gymnosperms
and 3121 angiosperm species; based mainly on collections by the Dept of Medicinal
Plants, address below.)
Field-guides
Polunin, O. and Stainton, J.D.A. (1984). Flowers of the Himalaya. Oxford University
Press. 580 pp. ahi
Storrs, A. and J. (1984). Discovering Trees in Nepal and the Himalayas. Sahayogi
Press, Kathmandu. 366 pp. (Descriptions and photographs of nearly 200 species.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Sahni, K.C. (1979). Endemic, relict, primitive and spectacular taxa in eastern
Himalayan flora and strategies for their conservation. Indian J. Forestry 2(2):
181-190. (Mentions 30 taxa rare or threatened in the Himalayan region, including
Nepal; notes on vegetation.)
IUCN/WWFE are sponsoring an inventory of endemic and threatened plants, to result ina
Nepalese Plant Red Data Book, as part of their Plants Programme.
Botanic Gardens
Royal Botanical Garden, Department of Medicinal Plants, Ministry of Forests,
Godawari, Lalitpur.
253
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Useful Addresses
Department of Medicinal Plants, Thapathali, Kamaladi, Kathmandu.
Royal Nepal Academy, Kamaladi, Kathmandu.
The King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, P.O. Box 3712, National Parks
Building, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu.
CITES Management Authority: The Director General, Dept of Botany, Thapathali,
Kathmandu.
Additional References
Dobremez, J.F. et al. (1969-1975). Cart Ecologique du Nepal. Documents de
Cartographie Ecologique 15: 1-7. Grenoble. (Vegetation maps covering central and
eastern Nepal, at 1:50,000 and 1:250,000.)
Hara, H. (1968). Photo-Album of Plants of Eastern Himalaya. Inoue, Tokyo. 89 pp.
(249 plates with notes on vegetation; in Japanese.)
Khadka, R.B. (1983). Mountain flora and their conservation in Nepal. In Jain, S.K.
and Mehra, K.L. (Eds), Conservation of Tropical Plant Resources. Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah. Pp. 132-141. (Includes outline of vegetation and human impact
on mountain flora.)
Majupuria, T.C. (Ed.) (1984). Nepal - Nature’s Paradise (Insight into Diverse Facets of
Topography, Flora and Ecology). White Lotus, Bangkok. 476 pp. (Chapters cover
vegetation; checklists of ferns in Nepal; orchids of Kathmandu Valley; economic
plants; man and the environment.)
McNeely, J.A. (1985). Man and nature in the Himalaya: what can be done to ensure
that both can prosper. 14 pp. (Paper presented to the International Workshop on
the Management of National Parks and Protected Areas in the Hindukush,
Himalaya. Kathmandu, Nepal, 6-11 May 1985.)
Nakao, S. (1964). Living Himalayan Flowers. Mainichi Newspapers, Tokyo. 194 pp.
(253 colour plates with chapters covering vegetation and major plant families;
introduction to Himalayan plants by S. Kitamura.)
Numata, M. (Ed.) (1983). Biota and Ecology of Eastern Nepal. Chiba University,
Japan. (Includes plant lists.)
Stainton, J.D.A. (1972). Forests of Nepal. Murray, London. 181 pp.
For useful background to the Himalayas see Lall and Moddie (1981), cited in Appendix 1.
A Prospectus for a National Conservation Strategy was prepared in 1983 by His Majesty’s
Government of Nepal and IUCN as a first step toward the formulation of a complete
National Conservation Strategy.
Netherlands
Area 41,160 sq. km
Population 14,339,551 (1983 estimate)
Floristics 1400-1600 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978, cited
in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 1436 native and naturalized species (Meijden et al.,
1983); no endemics. Floristic element: predominantly Atlantic, although the rocky terrain
of the far south (Limburg district) supports an isolated central European flora.
254
Netherlands
Vegetation Natural vegetation grossly modified by agriculture, forestry and
urban development; c. 40% of land-surface is man-made, the result of reclamation from
the sea. Despite the drainage of the large marsh and peat bog region (the Polders) in the
west, a valuable wetland flora still remains in places. The original acid oak woodland of
the higher parts of the east and south, and oak/beech woodland with birch, was cleared in
the middle of the 19th century. Remaining areas of floristic interest: the Wadden Sea area,
dunes along the North Sea, especially the Isle of Voorne, relict heathlands of the Veluwe
and the Biesbos delta (J. Mennema, 1984, in Jitt.).
Checklists and Floras Included in the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980) cited in Appendix 1. National Floras include:
Heimans, E., Heinsius, H.W. and Thijsse, J.P. (1983). Geillustreerde Flora van
Nederland, 22nd Ed. Versluys, Amsterdam. 1242 pp. (Line drawings.)
Heukels, H. and Meijden, R. van der (Ed.) (1983). Flora van Nederland, 20th Ed.
Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen. 583 pp. (Line drawings.)
Weevers, T. et al. (Eds) (1948- ). Flora Neerlandica: Flora van Nederland. De
Koninklijke Nederlands Botanische Vereeniging, Amsterdam. 9 parts to date. (Line
drawings.)
For a detailed checklist see:
Meijden, R. van der, Arnolds, E.J.M., Adema, F., Weeda, E.J. and Plate, C.L.
(1983). Standaardlijst van de Nederlandse Flora 1983. Rijksherbarium, Leiden.
32 pp.
The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS - address below) has a data-bank on plant
distributions, using a 5 km square grid system (Anon, 1985, cited in Appendix 1).
Field-guides The popular field-guide in English by Fitter, Fitter and Blamey
(1974), cited in Appendix 1, has been translated into Dutch and revised by H. Korthof and
J. Mennema (1984) (Elseviers Nieuwe Bloemengids, Elsevier, Amsterdam). See also:
Heukels, H. and Ooststroom, S.J. van (1968). Beknopte School-En Excursieflora voor
Nederland, 12th Ed. by S.J. van Oostroom. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen. 425 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants A national plant Red Data Book is in
preparation (J. Mennema, 1984, in litt.). The first 2 volumes of the plant atlas by
Mennema ef al. (1980- ) are devoted to extinct, threatened and rare species:
Mennema, J., Quené-Boterenbrood, A.J. and Plate, C.L. (Eds) (1980- ). Atlas van de
Nederlandse Flora, 1 vol. so far, by Kosmos, Amsterdam. English edition by Junk,
The Hague. 226 pp. 3 vols planned. (1 - Uitgestorven en zeer zeldzame planten
(Extinct and very rare species); contains conservation data and maps for over 300
vascular plant species (native and introduced); ecological and phytogeographical
descriptions. 2 (in press) - zeldzame en vrij zeldzame planten (Rare and rather rare
species); includes a chapter, by E.J. Weeda, about the changes in the occurrence of
vascular plants in the Netherlands; Bohn, Scheltema and Holkema, Utrecht. 3 (in
prep.) — Vrij algemene en algemene planten (Rather common and common species);
a threatened plant list will be included in the introduction.)
See also:
Leeuwen, C.G. van and Westhoff, V. (1961). De nivellering van flora en vegetatie.
Natura 58: 132-140.
Z55
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Mennema, J. (1973). La régression des espéces végétales en Hollande, basée sur les
premiers résultats de l’atlas de la flore néerlandaise en préparation. Rijksherbarium,
Leiden. 9 pp. (Mimeo.)
Mennema, J. (1975a). Threatened and protected plants in the Netherlands. Naturopa
22: 10-13.
Mennema, J. (1975b). Zeldzame planten tellen (Census of rare plants). Levende Nat.
78(2): 29-31.
Quené-Boterenbrood A.J. (1974). Een ‘tussenrapport’ over zeldzame Nederlandse
plantesoorten (An interim report of rare Dutch plant species). Natuur en Landschap
28: 297-308.
Westhoff, V. (1956). De verarming van flora en vegetatie (The impoverishment of the
flora and vegetation). In Gedenkboek 50 jaar Natuurmonumenten. Pp. 151-184.
(Not seen.)
Westhoff, V. (1976). Die Verarmung der Niederlandischen Gefasspflanzenflora in den
letzten 50 Jahren und ihre Teilweise Erhaltung in Naturreservaten (The decline of
the Dutch vascular plant flora during the past 50 years and the contribution of
nature reserves to its conservation). Schr.-R. Vegetationskunde 10: 63-73.
Westhoff, V. (1979). Bedrohung und Erhaltung seltener Pflanzengesellschaften in den
Niederlanden. In Wilmans, O. and Tiixen, R. (Eds), Werden und Vergehen von
Pflanzengesellschaften, Vaduz. Pp. 285-313.
Westhoff, V. and Weeda, E.J. (1984). De achteruitgang van de Nederlandse flora sinds
het begin van deze eeuw. (The decline of the Dutch flora since the beginning of the
first century). Natuur en Milieu 8(8): 8-17.
Wijnands, D.O. (1981). Bedreigde Nederlandse Waterplanten (Threatened Dutch water
plants). Bull. Arbor. Waasland 4(1): 38-42. (English translation pp. 48-50; describes
over 40 species.)
See also a series of papers written by many authors (S.L. van Oostroom, J. Mennema and
Th.J. Reichgelt et a/.) entitled ‘Nieuwe vondsten van zeldzame planten in Nederland’ (New
discoveries of rare plants in the Netherlands) in Gorteria from 1964 onwards.
Included in the European threatened plant list (Threatened Plants Unit, 1983, cited in
Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this work: non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - V:5, R:1, I:1 (world categories).
In 1982 IUCN, under contract to the EEC through the U.K. Nature Conservancy Council,
prepared a report (unpublished), Threatened Plants, Amphibians and Reptiles, and
Mammals (excluding Marine Species and Bats) of the European Economic Community,
which included a data sheet on 1 Dutch plant, now extinct in the country.
Laws Protecting Plants The Besluit of 6 August 1973 specifies 31 plant species
and 5 genera as being absolutely protected. It is prohibited to uproot or take any part of
these plants. In addition, it is forbidden to possess these plants, or to offer them for sale,
unless they have originated from propagated stock in a nursery or garden. In some
provinces and municipals there are local regulations forbidding the collection of certain
plants, for example Eryngium maritimum.
Voluntary Organizations
Christian Youth Organization for Nature Study (ACJN), Driebergseweg 16, 3708 7B
Zeist.
Koninklijke Nederlandse Botanische Vereeniging (KNBV) (Royal Botanical Society of
the Netherlands), Lange Nieuwstraat 106, 3512 PN Utrecht.
256
Netherlands
Netherlands Youth Organization for Nature Study (NJN), Noordereinde 60, 1243 77
’s-Graveland.
Royal Naturalists’ Organization for the Netherlands (KNNV), Burg. Hoogenboomlaan
24, 1718 B7 Hoogwoud.
Vereniging tot behoud van Natuurmonumenten in Nederland (Society for Nature
Preservation in the Netherlands), Schaep en Burgh, Noordereinde 60, 1243 JJ
’s-Graveland.
WWFE-Netherlands (Wereld Natuur Fonds), P.O. 7, 3700 AA Zeist.
Botanic Gardens Numerous botanic gardens, as listed in Henderson (1983), cited
in Appendix 1. Only subscribers to the Botanic Gardens Conservation Co-ordinating Body
are listed below:
Arboretum Trompenburg, Groene Wetering 46, 3062 PC Rotterdam.
Botanical Gardens of the State University, Harvardlaan 2, Postbus 80-162, 3508 TC
Utrecht.
Botanische Tuinen en Belmonte Arboretum Wageningen, Generaal Foulkesweg 70, 6703
BL Wageningen.
Botanische Tuin I.V.N.-Elsloo, Op den Berg 7, Elsloo.
Botanische Tuin ‘‘Jochum-Hof’’, Maashoek 2b, Steyl, Gem. Tegelen.
Hortus Botanicus der Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Toernooiveld, 6525 ED
Nijmegen.
Hortus Botanicus der Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, Nonnensteeg 3, 2311 VJ Leiden.
Hortus Botanicus Vrije Universiteit, Postbus 7161, 1007 MC Amsterdam.
University of Amsterdam Botanic Garden, Plantage Middenlaan 2, 1018 DD
Amsterdam.
Useful Addresses
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Department of the Natural Environment, P.O. Box
959, 2270 AZ Voorburg.
Institute for the Investigation of the Vegetation in the Netherlands (IVON),
Schelpenkade 6, 2313 ZT Leiden.
Natuur en Milieu (Foundation for Nature Conservation and Environmental Protection),
Donkerstraat 17, 3511 KB Leiden.
Natuurbeschermingsraad (Nature Conservancy Council), Maliebaan 12, 3581 CN
Utrecht. :
Research Institute for Nature Management (RIN), Kasteel Broekhuizen, 3956 ZR
Leersum.
Rijksherbarium, Schelpenkade 6, 2313 ZT Leiden.
Staatsbosbeheer (Government Nature Conservancy Service), P.O. 20020, 3505 CA
Utrecht.
CITES Management Authority: Hoofd van de Directie Natuur-en-
Landschapsbescherming, Ministerie van Landbouw en Visserij, Prins Clauslaan 6,
P.O. 20401, 2500 EK ’s-Gravenhage.
CITES Scientific Authority: Adviescommissie wet bedreigde uitheemse diersoorten,
Prins Clauslaan 6, P.O. 20401, 2500 EK ’s-Gravenhage.
TRAFFIC (Nederland), Muur 10, 1422 Uithoorn.
Additional References
Bakker, P.A. (1979). Vegetation science and nature conservation. In Werger, M.J.A.
(Ed.), The Study of Vegetation. Junk, Den Haag. Pp. 249-288. (Historical and
theoretical account of nature conservation; maps and diagrams.)
257
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Donselaar, J. van (1970). De Nederlandse natuurbescherming gezien in internationaal
verband-Botanie (Dutch nature conservation in the context of international botany).
In J.C. van de Kramer et al., Het Veerstoorde Evenwicht. Oosthoek, Utrecht. Pp.
231-244. (Describes important botanical areas in international context; in Dutch.)
Leeuw, W.C. de (1935). The Netherlands as an Environment for Plant Life. E.J. Brill,
Leiden. 19 pp. (Describes edaphic, climatic and biotic factors; maps.)
Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Recreation and Social Welfare (1981). Conservation in the
Netherlands: Factsheet on the Netherlands. 7 pp. (History of growth of nature
conservation in the Netherlands, including plants; statistics.)
Ooststroom, S.J. van (1975). Floristic literature published in the Netherlands mainly
between 1962 and 1972. Mem. Soc. Brot. 24(2): 747-763.
Westhoff, V., Bakker, P.A., Leeuwen, C.G. van and Voo, E.E. van der (1970-1973).
Wilde Planten - Flora en Vegetatie in Onze Natuurgebieden (Wild Plants - Flora
and Vegetation in our Nature Areas), 3 vols. Vereniging tot Behoud van
Natuurmonumenten in Nederland. 320 pp, 303 pp, 359 pp. (1 - Algemene inleiding,
duinen, zilte gronden; 2 - Het lage land; 3 - De hogere gronden.)
Westhoff, V. and Den Held, A.J. (1975). Planten Gemeenschappen in Nederland
(Plant communities in the Netherlands). W.J. Thieme and CIE-Zutphen. 324 pp.
Netherlands Antilles
The Netherlands Antilles, two widely separated groups of islands of the Lesser Antilles in
the Caribbean, are an integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The southern
group, igneous with coral reefs, comprises Curacao, Aruba and Bonaire and are less than
100 km off the coast of Venezuela. The northern group, volcanic and within the Leeward
Islands, comprise St Eustatius, Saba and the southern part of St Martin (see also under
Guadeloupe and Martinique).
Area 993 sq. km
Population 260,000
Floristics Accounts of Flora of the region are incomplete but the study of
published Floras revealed 7 species endemic to the southerly group and 12 doubtfully
endemic.
Vegetation On the southern group of Curacao, Aruba and Bonaire xerophytic
vegetation of thorny shrubs and cacti; on St Eustatius, Saba and St Martin, where the
climate is more humid, vegetation of Croton shrubs and some woodland; mostly modified
by man.
Checklists and Floras St Eustatius, St Martin and Saba are covered by the Flora
of the Lesser Antilles, Leeward and Windward Islands (only monocotyledons and ferns
published so far, Howard, 1974- , cited in Appendix 1) and by the family and generic
monographs of Flora Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). See also:
Arnoldo, M. (A.N. Broeders) (1967). Handleiding tot het gebruik van inheemse en
ingevoerde planten op Aruba, Bonaire en Curacao. Uitgare: Boekhandel ‘St.
Augustinus’, Curacao. 257 pp. (In Dutch, with keys and black and white
photographs.)
258
Netherlands Antilles
Arnoldo, M. (A.N. Broeders) (1971). Gekweekte en Nuttige Planten van de
Nederlandse Antillen. Utigaven van de Natuurwetenschappelijke Werkgroep
Nederlandse Antillen, Curagao no. 20. 279 pp. (In Dutch, with keys and black and
white photographs.)
Stoffers, A.L. et al. (1963, 1966). Flora of the Netherlands Antilles, Uitgaven
‘Natuurwetenschappelijke, studierkring voor Suriname en de Nederlandse Antillen’,
Utrecht. 3 parts. (Covers ferns and 25 angiosperm families.)
Field-guides
Arnoldo, M. (A.N. Broeders) (1964). Zakflora, wat in het wild groeit en bloeit op
Curacao, Aruba en Bonaire (Pocket Flora of Curacao, Aruba & Bonaire.) Uitgaven
van de Natuurwetenschappelijke Werkgroep Nederlandse Antillen, Caracao no. 16.
2nd Ed. 232 pp. (68 plates; in Dutch, with keys.)
Information on Threatened Plants None.
New Caledonia
The French Overseas Territory of New Caledonia, 1200 km east of Australia in the south-
west Pacific Ocean, includes the main island of New Caledonia (16,750 sq. km), the
Loyalty Islands (2227 sq. km), the Isle of Pines (134 sq. km) and the uninhabited Huon
Islands. In addition, Hunter (40.5 ha), Matthew (12 ha) and Walpole (125.5 ha) are 550 km
east of the main island, whereas the Chesterfield Islands are 450 km to the west. The
highest point, Mt Panié (1649 m), is on the main island. The Loyalty and Huon Islands are
low coral; Walpole is a raised limestone island; Hunter and Matthew are active volcanoes.
Population 152,000
Floristics c. 3250 vascular plant species (Morat, ef a/., 1984), including c. 300 fern
species (Parris, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). 2474 endemic vascular plant species (Morat et
al., 1984), including all conifers (44 spp.), Cunoniaceae (70-80 spp.), Proteaceae (43 spp.)
and palms. 5 endemic families - Amborellaceae (1 sp.), Oncothecaceae (2 spp.),
Paracryphiaceae (1-2 spp.), Phellineaceae (10 spp.), Strasburgeriaceae (1 sp.). Pantropical
and Indo-Australian genera represent 45% of the rain forest flora, Malesian genera 9.6%
(Morat ef al., 1984). Lowland rain forests, and maquis scrub on ultrabasic rocks
(especially serpentine) have a large number of primitive relict species.
Vegetation Tropical evergreen rain forest up to 1000 m; tropical montane rain
forest above 1000 m; a variant of evergreen rain forest, sometimes with Araucaria
columnaris, dominant near coast on raised coral, especially on Loyalty Islands and Isle of
Pines; dry sclerophyllous forest on western slopes; various types of maquis scrub on acidic
and ultrabasic rocks (e.g. peridotites and serpentinites), covering about 30% of the land
area; mangroves along western coasts. About 50% of the land area covered by secondary
forests, savanna and grasslands, due to clearance for mining, logging and agriculture.
Hunter has some grassland with occasional trees; Walpole is covered by dense scrub
(Douglas, 1969, cited in Appendix 1); Matthew has almost no vegetation.
According to figures of the Forestry Department (quoted in Myers, 1980, cited in
Appendix 1), forests of all types cover 16,000 sq. km; however, Thomson and Adloff
(1971) estimated that relatively undisturbed rain forest covered only 10% of the territory,
and that ‘‘the high forest resource will be exhausted in 30-40 years’’. For a more detailed
259
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
account of vegetation and maps, see Morat, Jaffré, Veillon and MacKee (1981). See also
Schmid (1978).
Checklists and Floras
Aubréville, A., Leroy, J.-F. and MacKee, H.S. (Eds) (1967- ). Flore de la Nouvelle-
Calédonie et Dépendances. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. (13 fascicles so
far, covering ferns, gymnosperms, and 25 flowering plant families, including
Apocynaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Orchidaceae, and Proteaceae.)
Guillaumin, A. (1911). Catalogue des plantes phanérogames de la Nouvelle-Calédonie
et Dépendances. Ann. Mus. Col. Marseille 19. 86 pp. (Includes checklists; rather
dated and incomplete.)
Guillaumin, A. (1948). Flore Analytique et Synoptique de la Nouvelle-Calédonie -
Phanérogames. Office de la Recherche Scientifique Coloniale, Paris. 369 pp. (Keys
to families, genera, species; rather dated.)
Morat, Ph., Veillon, J.-M. and MacKee, H.S. (1984). Floristic relationships of New
Caledonian rain forest phanerogams. In Radovsky, F.J., Raven, P. and Sohmer,
S.H. (Eds), Biogeography of the Tropical Pacific. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Special
Publ. no. 72. Honolulu. Pp. 71-128. (Includes checklist of c. 1000 rain forest
species; endemics indicated.)
Sarasin, F. and Roux, J. (Eds) (1914-1921). Nova Caledonia - Recherches Scientifiques
en Nouvelle-Calédonie et aux Iles Loyalty. Kreidel, Berlin. 311 pp. (Checklists of
lower plants, ferns and some flowering plants; chapters on plant geography.)
Separate lists for Hunter, Matthew, Walpole, Chesterfield, Loyalty-and the Huon Islands
include:
Cochic, F. (1959). Report on a visit to the Chesterfield Islands, September 1957. Afoll
Res. Bull. 63. 11 pp. (Lists 20 vascular plant species; notes on vegetation.)
Guillaumin, A. (1973). Contributions a la flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie, 130: plantes
des jles Walpole et Matthew. Bull. Mus. National d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris), sér.
3, 192 (Bot., no. 12): 180-183. (Lists 45 species from Walpole, 10 from Matthew.)
Guillaumin, A. and Veillon, J.M. (1969). Plantes des archipels Huon et Chesterfield.
Bull. Mus. National d’Histoire Naturelle (Paris), sér. 2, 41: 606-607. (Lists 10
species.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published list of threatened plants. 2
palms, Burretiokentia hapala and Cyphophoenix nucele, are included in The IUCN Plant
Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:1, E:14, V:24, R:108,
1:21, nt:48 (mainly covering gymnosperms, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Palmae).
Voluntary Organizations It is reported that a nature protection association has
recently been formed.
Additional References
Jaffré, T. (1980). Végétation des Roches Ultabasiques en Nouvelle Calédonie. Traveaux
et Documents no. 124. ORSTOM, Nouméa. Pp. 228. (Includes map.)
Morat, Ph., Jaffré, T., Veillon, J.M. and MacKee, H.S. (1981). Les Formations
Végétales, Carte no. 15 Atlas de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. ORSTOM, Nouméa. (Scale
1:1,000,000.)
Sarlin, P. (1954). Bois et Foréts de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Centre Technique Forestier
Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 303 pp. (Includes treatments of principal forest
trees.)
260
New Caledonia
Schmid, M. (1978). The Melanesian forest ecosystems (New Caledonia, New Hebrides,
Fiji Islands and Solomon Islands). In Unesco/UNEP/FAO (1978), cited in
Appendix 1. Pp. 654-683.
Schmid, M. (1981). Fleurs et Plantes de Nouvelle-Calédonie. Les éditions du Pacifique.
Papeete, Tahiti. 164 pp. (181 taxa with notes on distribution, ecology, and
vegetation; many colour photographs.)
Thomson, V. and Adloff, R. (1971). The French Pacific Islands: French Polynesia and
New Caledonia. Univ. Press, Berkeley, California.
Thorne, R.F. (1965). Floristic relationships of New Caledonia. Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat.
Hist. 20(7): 1-14.
Virot, R. (1956). La végétation Canaque. Mem. Mus. Nat. Paris (Bot.) 7. 398 pp.
New Zealand
Area 268,704 sq. km
Population 3,264,000
Floristics c. 2000 species of flowering plants and ferns; about 81% endemic
(Given, 1981a), reaching over 90% in the alpine flora. Over 200 species are shared with
Australia. There are also subantarctic and palaeotropical elements (Flora of New Zealand,
1961).
Vegetation Kauri (Agathis australis) forests in the warmer parts of North Island,
north of latitude 38°S; lowland podocarp and mixed podocarp/beech (Nothofagus)/
hardwood forests along west coast of South Island; beech forests over much of South
Island and south of latitude 39°S in North Island, and in montane and subalpine regions
(Molloy, 1984); remnants of swamp-forest in west South Island. The forested area is
reduced from 80% (1200 years ago) to 26% today, of which 23% consists of montane
remnants of the indigenous forests, and 3% plantations of exotic softwoods (Molloy,
1984). Scrubland, wetland and coastal communities have also been seriously depleted.
Checklists and Floras The Flora is:
Flora of New Zealand (1961, 1970, 1980). Vol. 1 by H.H. Allan. Owen, Wellington.
1085 pp. (Ferns, fern allies, gymnosperms, dicotyledons; bibliography.) Vol. 2 by
L.B. Moore and E. Edgar. Shearer, Wellington. 354 pp. (Monocotyledons except
Gramineae; bibliography.) Vol. 3 by A.J. Healy and E. Edgar. Hasselberg,
Wellington. 220 pp. (Adventive monocotyledons; covers 168 introduced species.)
See also:
Eagle, A. (1982). Eagle’s Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand: Second Series. Collins,
Auckland. 382 pp. (405 botanical paintings, notes on distribution, short
descriptions.)
Poole, A.L. and Adams, N.M. (1963). Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Owen,
Wellington. 250 pp. (Complete coverage; line drawings of 400 species.)
Field-guides
Cooper, D. (1981). A Field Guide to New Zealand Native Orchids. Price Milburn,
Wellington. 103 pp.
261
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Mark, A.F. and Adams, N.M. (1979). New Zealand Alpine Plants, 2nd Ed. Reed,
Wellington. 262 pp.
Moore, L.B. and Adams, N.M. (1963). Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Paul’s,
Auckland and Hamilton. 113 pp.
Richards, E.C. (1956). Our New Zealand Trees and Flowers, 3rd Ed. Simpson and
Williams, Christchurch. 297 pp.
Salmon, J.T. (1963). New Zealand Flowers and Plants in Colour. Reed, Wellington.
203 pp. (Colour photographs and short descriptions of over 500 species arranged
according to habitats.)
Salmon, J.T. (1968). Field Guide to the Alpine Plants of New Zealand. Reed,
Wellington. 326 pp.
Wilson, H.D. (1978). Field Guide: Wild Plants of Mount Cook National Park. Field
Guide Publications, Christchurch. 294 pp.
Wilson, H.D. (1982). Field Guide: Stewart Island Plants. Field Guide Publication,
Christchurch. 528 pp.
Information on Threatened Plants New Zealand is covered by a technical loose-
leaf Red Data Book (Given, 1976, 1977, 1978), an official RDB (Williams and Given,
1981) and a popular account of threatened plants (Given, 1981a).
Given, D.R. (1976, 1977, 1978). Threatened Plants of New Zealand: A Register of Rare
and Endangered Plants of the New Zealand Botanical Region. DSIR, Christchurch.
(Loose-leaf series of detailed double-paged sheets on 50 selected threatened species.)
Given, D.R. (1976). A register of rare and endangered indigenous plants in New
Zealand. N.Z. J. Bot. 14(2): 135-149. (Lists 314 taxa under consideration for
threatened status.)
Given, D.R. (1981a). Rare and Endangered Plants of New Zealand. Reed, Wellington.
154 pp. (Descriptive text, chapters on each threat, with examples, introductory
chapters on vegetation; lists 279 taxa, the majority of which are rare and threatened
endemics; includes ‘Code of Conduct for conservation of wild plants’.)
Williams, G.R. and Given, D.R. (1981). The Red Data Book of New Zealand: Rare
and Endangered Species of Endemic Terrestrial Vertebrates and Vascular Plants.
Nature Conservation Council, Wellington. 175 pp. (Includes data sheets on 66
selected threatened plants.)
For a more comprehensive bibliography of publications and papers on the conservation of
New Zealand’s flora, see Given (198la). 11 species from New Zealand, including
Xeronema callistemon from the Poor Knights, and Hen and Chicken Islands, are included
in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978). Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:4,
E:41, V:5, R:86, 1:23.
Laws Protecting Plants The Native Plants Protection Act (1934) gives limited
protection to native plants growing on any Crown Land, or in any State Forest or public
reserve, or roads. Under the provisions of the Act it is an offence to take native plants
from such land without the consent of the owner or occupier. A few serious weeds are
exempt from the Act. A Supreme Court ruling in 1973 decided that the Act does not apply
to trees, and does not recognize degrees of endangerment with provision for various levels
and types of protection. An extensive revision of the Act is proposed following discussion
and public submissions (D. Given, 1984, in litt.).
Other legislation giving various degrees and types of protection to threatened plants
include:
262
New Zealand
The Forest Act (1949): makes it illegal to take, destroy or injure without lawful authority,
forest produce in, on or from any State Forest land.
The National Parks Act (1980): gives similar protection to plants in National Parks and
Reserves administered by the Department of Land and Survey.
The Town and Country Planning Act: has provision for preservation of ‘‘trees, bushes,
plants, or landscape of scientific, wildlife, or historic interest or visual appeal’’.
Provisions in the Land Act (1961) make it an offence to interfere with forest, wood or
timber, or to remove bark and flax from Crown lands without permission.
Voluntary Organizations
Auckland Botanical Society, c/o Secretary, 14 Park Road, Titirangi, Auckland 7.
Canterbury Botanical Society, P.O. Box 8212, Christchurch.
Waipahihi Botanical Society (Inc.), c/o Secretary, 45 Ingle Avenue, Taupo.
Wellington Botanical Society, c/o Secretary, 116 Korokora Road, Petone.
WWF-New Zealand, 110-116 Courtenay Place, P.O. Box 6237, Wellington.
Botanic Gardens
Auckland City Council Botanic Garden, Private Bag, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Botany Division Experimental Gardens, DSIR, Private Bag, P.O. Box 237,
Christchurch.
Christchurch Botanic Gardens, Parks and Recreation Dept, City Council, P.O. Box
237, Christchurch.
Dunedin Botanic Garden, Parks and Recreation Dept, City Council, P.O. Box 5045,
Dunedin.
Massey University Botanic Garden, Palmerston North.
Otari Open-Air Native Plant Museum, Wilton, P.O. Box 2199, Wellington.
Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust (Inc.), P.O. Box 385, New Plymouth.
Pukekura Park, Parks and Recreations Dept, City Council, Private Bag, New
Plymouth.
Timaru Botanic Garden, Parks and Recreation Dept, City Council, P.O. Box 522,
Timaru.
Index of threatened plants in cultivation:
Threatened Plants Unit, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre (1983). The Botanic
Gardens List of New Zealand Threatened Species. Botanic Gardens Conservation
Co-ordinating Body, Report No. 8. IUCN, Kew. 11 pp. (Lists 96 rare and
threatened endemic taxa reported in cultivation, with gardens listed against each.)
Useful Addresses
Botany Division, DSIR, Private Bag, Christchurch.
Nature Conservation Council, Box 12/200, Wellington North.
Additional References
Given, D.R. (1981b). Threatened plants of New Zealand: documentation in a series of
islands. In Synge, H. (Ed.), The Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation.
Wiley, Chichester. Pp. 67-80.
Given, D.R. (Ed.) (1983). Conservation of Plant Species and Habitats. Nature
Conservation Council, Wellington. 128 pp. (Symposium proceedings of 15th Pacific
Science Congress, Dunedin, February 1983. See in particular D.R. Given on
monitoring and strategies for threatened plant conservation in New Zealand,
pp. 83-101; K. Thompson on the status of New Zealand’s wetlands, pp. 103-116.)
263
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Molloy, L.F. (1984). The reservation of commercially important lowland forests in New
Zealand. In McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National Parks, Conservation,
and Development: the Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Pp. 394-401. (Proceedings of the World
Congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, 11-22 October 1982.)
Nicaragua
Area 148,000 sq. km
Population 3,162,000
Floristics Not explored botanically in great detail; an estimated 5000 species of
vascular plants (Gentry, 1978, cited in Appendix 1); 57 endemic species known so far
(IUCN figures).
Vegetation In the Mosquitia region tropical moist forest (believed to be the
largest remaining tract in Central America, about 3600 sq. km still undisturbed);
coniferous forest (c. 1300 sq. km); at the upper reaches of the cerros and cordilleras moist
cloud forests; in some summit areas elfin forest, some undisturbed and rich in new species.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 1050 sq. km/annum out of
41,700 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras Nicaragua is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project,
described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). Also ‘‘most plants’’ of Nicaragua are included in the
completed Flora of Guatemala and related articles in Fieldiana, outlined under
Guatemala. Country accounts are:
Hamer, F. (1983). Orchids of Nicaragua. Part 2, 3. Icones Plantarum Tropicarum 8, 9:
701-900. (Descriptions, illustrations and dot maps.)
Seymour, F. (1980). A check list of the vascular plants of Nicaragua. Phytologia
Memoirs 1: 1-314. (List of species based on collections made by the author,
1968-1976.)
A 10-year project to prepare a 2-volume Flora of Nicaragua Manual (in Spanish) was
begun in 1977 under the aegis of the Missouri Botanical Garden and the Herbario Nacional
de Nicaragua, Universidad Centroamericana.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The list of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa - Ex:1, R:6, K:48, nt:2; non-endemics rare or threatened worldwide -
V:7, R:6, I:1 (world categories).
7 species are listed as threatened in the Annex to the Convention on Nature Protection and
Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (1940). Threatened plants are mentioned
in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104), J.T. Mickel on rare
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328).
264
Nicaragua
Useful Addresses
Herbario Nacional de Nicaragua, Universidad Centroamericana, Apdo 69, Managua.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Departamento de Regulacion y
Control, Instituto Nicaragiiense de Recursos Naturales y de Ambiente (IRENA), Km
12 1/2 Carretera Norte, Apdo Postal 5123, Managua.
Additional References
Ashton, J. (1945). On the plant resources and flora of Nicaragua. In Verdoorn, F.
(Ed.), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 60-64.
Holdridge, L.R. (1962). Mapa Ecolégico de Nicaragua. Agencia para el Desarollo
Internacional de Gobierno de los Estados Unidos de America, Managua.
Niger
Area 1,186,408 sq. km
Population 5,940,000
Floristics 1178 species (Lebrun ef al/., 1983), 2 dubiously endemic (Brenan, 1978,
cited in Appendix 1).
Flora north of c. 16°N with Saharan affinities; flora of central and southern parts,
including the Air and Ténéré area with Sahelian affinities. In extreme south flora has
Sudanian affinities. The Air and Ténéré area is especially rich floristically, with even
Mediterranean and Afromontane elements.
Vegetation Mostly desert and semi-desert. As rainfall increases further south,
semi-desert grassland grades into low wooded grassland with Acacia tortilis, increasing in
density and height, and grading into Sudanian woodland without characteristic dominants
in extreme south. Saharamontane vegetation, including woody shrubland and grassland
communities, occurs on the northernmost peaks of Air.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Niger south of c. 18°N is included in the Flora of West
Tropical Africa. Niger north of c. 16°N is included in Flore du Sahara (Ozenda, 1977), and
in the computerized Atlas der Pflanzenwelt des Nordafrikanischen Trockenraumes
(Frankenberg and Klaus, 1980). These are all cited in Appendix 1.
Boudouresque, E., Kaghan, S. and Lebrun, J.-P. (1978). Premier supplément au
“‘Catalogue des plantes vasculaires du Niger’’. Adansonia, Sér. 2, 18(3): 377-390.
Lebrun, J.-P., Boudouresque, E., Dulieu, D., Garba, M., Saadou, M. and Roussel, B.
(1983). Second supplément au ‘‘Catalogue des plantes vasculaires du Niger’’. Bull.
Soc. Bot. Fr. 130 (Lettres Bot.) 1983(3): 249-256.
Peyre de Fabrégues, B. (1979). Lexique de Noms Vernaculaires de Plantes du Niger,
2nd Ed. Institut d’Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Maisons-
Alfort. 156 pp.
Peyre de Fabrégues, B. and Lebrun, J.-P. (1976). Catalogue des plantes vasculaires du
Niger. Institut d’Elevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, Maisons-
Alfort, France. 433 pp. (Annotated checklist with botanical bibliography of Niger.)
265
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Information on Threatened Plants
Gillet, H. and Peyre de Fabrégues, B. (1982). Quelques arbres utiles, en voie de
disparition, dans le centre-est du Niger. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 36(3): 465-470.
(Includes Khaya senegalensis, Terminalia avicennioides.)
No published lists of rare or threatened plants; IUCN has records of 4 species and
infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic; no categories available.
One species which occurs in Niger (Olea laperrinei) is included in The IUCN Plant Red
Data Book (1978).
Useful Addresses
CITES Management Authority: Ministére de I’hydraulique et de l’environnement, B.P.
241, Niamey.
Additional References
Dundas, J. (1938). Vegetation types of the Colonie du Niger. Inst. Pap. Imp. For. Inst.
15. 10 pp. (With small-scale vegetation map.)
Fairbairn, W.A. (1943). Classification and description of the vegetation types of the
Niger Colony, French West Africa. Inst. Pap. Imp. For. Inst. 23. 38 pp. (With
small-scale vegetation map.)
Nigeria
Area 923,850 sq. km
Population 92,037,000
Floristics 4614 species (quoted in Lebrun, 1976, cited in Appendix 1); northern
region (as defined in the Flora of West Tropical Africa, cited in Appendix 1) with mainly
Sudanian (but also Guinea-Congolian) affinities, 39 endemic species; western and central
region (38 endemic species) and eastern region (128 endemic species) with Guinea-
Congolian affinities. Eastern region especially rich round Oban (Brenan, 1978, cited in
Appendix 1).
Vegetation Large areas of mangrove and swamp forest round the Niger River
delta. Inland, lowland rain forest, changing gradually to Guinea Savanna of Jsoberlinia
doka woodland, and, in the most northerly regions of Nigeria, Sudanian woodland
without characteristic dominants. Montane communities including forest and grassland
are found on the Jos Plateau, and in places on high ground near the south and eastern
border (Vogel Peak massif, Mambilla Plateau complex, and Obudu Plateau).
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 3000 sq. km/annum out of
59,500 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). However, Myers (1980, cited in Appendix 1) gives the
following figures: 45,000 sq. km moist forests remaining, of which 25,495 sq. km are
worth classifying as forest reserves and of which 16,000 sq. km are sufficiently stocked to
warrant further timber exploitation.
For vegetation map see White (1983), cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Nigeria is included in the Flora of West Tropical Africa,
cited in Appendix 1.
266
Nigeria
Gbile, Z.O. (1981). Dichotomous key to the Nigerian species of ferns and fern-allies.
Nigerian J. For. 11(1,2): 33-48.
Keay, R.W.J., Onochie, C.F.A. and Stanfield, D.P. (1960, 1964). Nigerian trees, 2
vols. Dept of Forest Research, Ibadan. 334, 495 pp. (Keys, including multi-access
key to genera; descriptions, specimens, distributions; line drawings.)
Lowe, J. and Stanfield, D.P. (Eds) (1970- ). The Flora of Nigeria. Ibadan University
Press, Ibadan. (Published in fascicles; only 2 produced so far: Grasses +
illustrations, 1970, 118 pp., 58 plates, by D.P. Stanfield; Sedges, 1974, 144 pp., by
J. Lowe and D.P. Stanfield. Multi-access keys included.)
Information on Threatened Plants
Chapman, J.D. (1982). Conservation of Afromontane forest: Ngel Nyaki Forest
Reserve. Nigerian Field 47(1-3): 133.
Gbile, Z.O., Ola-Adams, B.A. and Soladoye, M.O. (1978). Endangered species of the
Nigerian flora. Nigerian J. For. 8(1,2): 14-20.
Gbile, Z.O., Ola-Adams, B.A. and Soladoye, M.O. (1981). List of rare species of the
Nigerian flora. Research Paper (Forest Series) 47. Forest Research Institute of
Nigeria, Ibadan.
Hedberg, I. (1979), cited in Appendix 1. (Only three species reported as known to be
threatened, p. 92.)
Kinako, P.D.S. (1977). Conserving the mangrove forest of the Niger Delta. Biol.
Conserv. 11(1): 35-39. (Includes map.)
IUCN has records of 282 species and infraspecific taxa believed to be endemic, including
E:8; no other categories assigned.
Laws Protecting Plants There are forest laws restricting harvesting of timber
trees without permission.
Botanic Gardens
Biological Gardens, University of Ife, Ife-Ife, Oyo State.
Botanical Garden, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo State.
Dept of Biological Sciences, University of Zaria, Zaria, North Central State.
Useful Addresses
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B. 5054, Ibadan.
CITES Management Authority: Federal Department of Forestry, Federal Ministry of
Agriculture, P.M.B. No. 12613, 6, Ijeh Village, Obalende, Lagos.
Additional References
Charter, J.R. (1968). Nigeria. In Hedberg, I. and O. (1968), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 91-94.
Keay, R.W.J. (1948-1959). An Outline of Nigerian Vegetation. Govt Printer, Lagos.
52 pp. with coloured vegetation map 1:3,000,000 (1948). 2nd Ed., 55 pp. (1953). 3rd
Ed. (minor corrections only), 1959.
Ola-Adams, B.A. (1977). Conservation of genetic resources of indigenous forest tree
species in Nigeria: possibilities and limitations. Forest Genetic Resources Inf. 7: 1-9.
Ola-Adams, B.A. and Iyamabo, D.E. (1977). Conservation of natural vegetation in
Nigeria. Envir. Conserv. 4(3): 217-226. (With two black and white photographs.)
267
Niue
Niue (169°55’W, 19°2’S), a self-governing territory associated with New Zealand, is a
raised coral plateau 480 km east of Tonga, in the south-west Pacific Ocean. Area 259 sq.
km; population 4000. Mutalau Reef reaches 61 m, Alofi Terrace 25 m. Soils are shallow
and porous, and on Mutalau Reef only present in pockets. Settlements are found on the
coast; much of the interior is uninhabited.
629 vascular plant taxa, of which c. 175 indigenous (Sykes, 1970). Most species are also
found on Tonga and the Samoan Archipelago; many are widespread throughout the
Pacific. No information on threatened plants.
Niue was originally covered by tropical rain forest, now found only in the centre, east and
south-east; coastal forests on the terraces; large areas of secondary forest and scrub in
central basin. Shifting cultivation has greatly modified the vegetation over much of the
island.
There was an Environmental Protection Ordinance with conservation provisions under
consideration in 1975; current status not known.
References
Sykes, W.R. (1970). Contributions to the Flora of Niue. DSIR, Bull. no. 100.
Christchurch, N.Z. 321 pp.
Yuncker, T.G. (1943). The flora of Niue Island. Bull. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 178.
126 pp.
Norfolk Island
The Norfolk Island complex, an External Territory of Australia, is an isolated volcanic
outcrop, c. 800 km north-west of New Zealand, in the south-west Pacific Ocean, at
latitude 29°S and longitude 168°E. It comprises Norfolk (36 sq. km), Philip (2.5 sq. km),
Nepean and satellite islands.
Area 39 sq. km
Population 1700 (1980 estimate, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics Norfolk Island has 174 native vascular plant species (Turner ef ai.,
1968), of which 48 are endemic. Philip Island has 3 endemic species (Melville, 1969).
Vegetation On Norfolk Island, forests greatly reduced by clearance for
agriculture and settlement, and disturbed by timber exploitation. There are remnants of
coniferous, mixed hardwood, palm/hardwood and palm/tree fern forest, particularly in
the Norfolk Island National Park (formerly the Mt Pitt Reserve, of area 460 ha), which
includes 100 native plants and is the best plant site remaining on the island (Australian
National Parks and Wildlife Service, 1984).
Philip Island originally supported a dense forest but has been devastated by introduced
pigs, goats and rabbits. Today little vegetation remains; WWF-Australia are sponsoring a
rescue project for the endemic Hibiscus insularis and the Australian National Parks and
Wildlife Service are controlling the rabbits, as described by Coyne (1983).
268
Norfolk Island
Checklists and Floras Norfolk Island will be included in a forthcoming volume of
the Flora of Australia (1981- ), cited under Australia.
Turner, J.S., Smithers, C.N. and Hoogland, R.D. (1968). Conservation of Norfolk
Island. Australian Conservation Foundation Special Publ. no. 1. 41 pp. (Includes
checklist of plants on the islands with notes on local distribution, frequency,
habitats; chapters on conservation problems and recommendations.)
Information on Threatened Plants 49 vascular plants of Norfolk and Philip
islands, with notes on conservation status are listed in Leigh ef a/. (1981), cited under
Australia. Hibiscus insularis and Streblorrhiza speciosa are included in The IUCN Plant
Red Data Book (1978). See also:
Melville, R. (1969). The endemics of Phillip Island. Biol. Conserv. 1: 170-172. (Of the
3 endemics, Agropyron kingianum was last seen in 1912, Streblorrhiza speciosa is
Extinct and Hibiscus insularis is Endangered.)
Latest IUCN statistics: endemic taxa - Ex:5, E:11, V:29, I:1; non-endemic taxa rare or
threatened worldwide - V:3 (world categories).
Botanic Gardens In 1984 the Norfolk Island Government changed the status of
Mt Pitt Reserve to a National Park and decided to establish a Botanic Garden for native
species (P. Coyne, 1984, in litt.).
Useful Addresses
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, P.O. Box 310, Norfolk Island.
Additional References
Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (1984). Plan of Management Norfolk
Island National Park and Plan of Management Norfolk Island Botanic Garden.
ANPWS, Canberra. 112 pp.
Coyne, P. (1983). Revegetation attempt on Philip Island, South Pacific. Threatened
Plants Newsletter 12:14.
Norway
Area 323,895 sq. km
Population 4,140,000
Floristics Based on Flora Europaea, D.A. Webb (1978, cited in Appendix 1)
estimates a flora of 1600-1800 native vascular species; 1 endemic species and 1 endemic
subspecies (IUCN figures). Elements: Arctic/alpine, Boreal and Atlantic.
Vegetation Large tracts of vegetation still untouched. Forests, mostly coniferous,
occupy c. 30% of country. Species diversity highest in south-east with deciduous forest of
oak, elm and lime up to 550 m, replaced by widespread pine and spruce at higher altitudes.
Atlantic influence felt only in extreme south-west. Along west coast, forests of birch, oak
and alder predominate together with blanket bogs and mires. On the central, longitudinal
mountains at 1200-1600 m, alpine flora with dwarf shrubs, while at higher levels plant
communities become dominated by cryptogams. In the extreme north and north-east pine
and birch gives way to Arctic/alpine vegetation with lichen-tundra accompanied by dwarf
shrubs, grasses and rushes.
269
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras Included in the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin et al.,
1964-1980) and Lindman’s Nordens Flora (1964), both cited in Appendix 1. Below are
recent national and regional Floras:
Hylander, N. (1953, 1966). Nordisk Kdrlvaéxtflora, 2 vols. Almqvist and Wiksell,
Stockholm. (Line drawings.)
Lid, J. (1974). Norsk og Svensk Flora, 4th Ed. Norske Samlaget, Oslo. 808 pp. (Covers
Norway and Sweden; line drawings.)
Nordhagen, R. (1940-1970). Norsk Flora, 2 vols. Aschehoug, Oslo. 766 pp., 638 plates.
(1 - text with keys; 2 - illustrations of pteridophytes and angiosperms.)
For plant atlases see Hultén (1971), cited in Appendix 1, and:
Faegri, K. et al. (Eds) (1960). Maps of Distribution of Norwegian Vascular Plants.
Vol. 1. Coast plants. Oslo Univ. Press, Oslo. 134 pp. (Describes geography of
Norway and ecology of coast plants; 156 taxa mapped.)
Relevant journals: Blyttia, Journal of the Norwegian Botanical Society (Norsk Botanisk
Forening); Nordic Journal of Botany, Copenhagen; Norsk Natur, Journal of the
Norwegian Society for Nature Conservation (Norges Naturvernforbund).
Information on Threatened Plants The National Council for Nature
Conservation (Statens Naturvernrad), address below, publishes the list of threatened
Norwegian plant species and undertakes a regular revision of the list every 4 years
(Norderhaug, 1984). There is no national plant Red Data Book but see:
Gjerlaug, H.C. (1975). Liste over truede ogleller sjeldne planter i Norge,
karsporeplanter og froplanter. Oslo. (Unpublished; includes a list of rare and
threatened plants; not seen.)
Gjerlaug, H.C. (1977). Liste over antatt utdedde, truete, sarbare og sjeldne plantearter
i Norge. (Unpublished.) 7 pp.
Halvorsen, R. and Fagernaes, K.E. (1980- ). Sjeldne og sarbare plantearter i Sor-Norge
(Rare and threatened plant species in South Norway). Blyttia 38(1): 3-8; 38(3):
127-132; 38(4): 171-179; 40(2): 85-93 (by T. Schumacher, E. Bendiksen and
R. Halvorsen); 40(3): 163-173. (English summaries.)
Norderhaug, M. (Ed.) (1984). Truete Planter og Dyr i Norge (Threatened Plants and
Animals in Norway). Statens Naturvernrad. 24 pp. (A popular booklet prepared by
the National Council for Nature Conservation (address below) outlining general
problems related to threatened species and their conservation; lists 126 threatened
vascular plants with IUCN categories; in Norwegian with English summary; colour
illus.)
Norway is included in the Nordic Council of Ministers’ threatened plant list (Ovesen ef a/.,
1978, 1982, cited in Appendix 1) and in the European threatened plant list (Threatened
Plants Unit, 1983, cited in Appendix 1); latest IUCN statistics, based upon this latter
work: endemic taxa - E:1, nt:1; doubtful endemics - V:1; non-endemics rare or threatened
worldwide - V:6, R:8, I:1 (world categories).
Laws Protecting Plants Section 13 of the Nature Conservation Act 1970 states
that ‘‘The King may decide that wild-growing plant species or plant colonies which are rare
or are in danger of extinction, shall be protected in the whole country or in specified
areas’’. Only 4 plant species are nationally protected: Viscum album, Aster sibiricus,
Oxytropis deflexa subsp. norvegica and Braya purpurascens. The following taxa have a
lower grade of protection: Saxifraga paniculata, Cladium mariscus, Papaver radicatum
270
Norway
subsp. relictum, Carex scirpoidea, Polemonium boreale and Onopordium acanthium. For
details see Koester (1980, cited in Appendix 1).
Voluntary Organizations
Norges Naturvernforbund (The Norwegian Society for Conservation of Nature), Box
8268, Hammersborg, Oslo 1.
Norsk Botanisk Forening (Norwegian Botanical Society), Botanical Museum, University
of Oslo, Trondheimsveien 23 B, 0560 Oslo 5.
Nyttevekstforeningen, Botanical Museum, University of Oslo, Trondheimsveien 23 B,
0560 Oslo 5.
WWF-Norway (Verdens Villmarksfond - Norge), Rosenkrantzgt. 22, 0160 Oslo 1.
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Garden, University of Oslo, Trondheimsveien 23 B, 0560 Oslo 5.
Botanisk Hage, P.O. Box 12, 5014 Bergen.
Milde Arboretum, P.O. Box 41, 5067 Store Milde.
Ringve Botaniske Hage, University of Trondheim, 7000 Trondheim.
Useful Addresses
Statens Naturvernrad (National Council for Nature Conservation), Postboks 266, 3101
Tonsberg.
The Norwegian NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, c/o The Norwegian Society for
Conservation of Nature, address as above.
CITES Management Authority: Miljoverndepartementet, Ministry of Environmental
Affairs, Postboks 8013 Dep., Oslo 1.
Additional References
Holmboe, J. (1924-1925). Einige Grundziige von der Pflanzengeographie Norwegens.
Bergens Museums Aarbok. 54 pp.
Kleppa, P. (1973, 1979). Norsk Botanisk Bibliografi 1814-1964, and 1964-1975, 2 vols.
Universitetsforlaget, Oslo.
Miljoverndepartementet (1976). Oversikt over omrader og forekomster i Norge som er
fredet eller vernet etter naturvernloven, samt omrader og forekomster som er
administrativt fredet (List of areas and objects in Norway protected by the Nature
Conservation Act, and areas and objects protected by administrative regulations).
Norwegian Ministry of Environmental Affairs.
Wielgolaski, F.E. (1971). IBP Ecosystems studies in Norway. Biol. Conserv. 4(1):
71-72.
Ogasawara-Gunto
72 small volcanic islands, formerly called the Bonin Islands, 966 km south of Tokyo. Area
73 sq. km; population 1798 (1984 official report). The islands are a dependency of Japan.
483 vascular plant species of which 369 native (Kobayashi, 1978). Of the 70 species of
pteridophytes, 25 are endemic; of the 298 angiosperm species, 126 endemic. The only
native gymnosperm (Juniperus taxifolia) is endemic. The Ogasawaras are floristically
distinct from the adjacent Mariana Islands (van Balgooy, 1971, cited in Appendix 1).
There are Asian and tropical Pacific elements represented in both broadleaved evergreen
and broadleaved deciduous forests (Tuyama, 1972). Many areas cleared for agriculture,
grazing and settlements.
271
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Checklists and Floras
Kobayashi, S. (1978). A list of the vascular plants occurring in the Ogasawara (Bonin)
Islands. Ogasawara Research 1: 1-33. (Annotated checklist, endemics indicated,
notes on distribution and habitats.)
A number of species from Ogasawara-Gunto are included in the Atlas by Horikawa (1972,
1976), cited under Japan.
Information on Threatened Plants
Woolliams, K.R. (1978, 1979). Observations on the flora of the Ogasawara Islands.
Notes from Waimea Arboretum 5(2): 2-10; 6(1): 6-14. (Reports on 19 species, most
of which are threatened.)
Woolliams, K.R. (1983). Ogasawara Islands: news from Hahajima. Notes from
Waimea Arboretum 10(1): 4-5. (Notes on 4 rare or threatened plants.)
Yoshida, A. and Tannawa, T. (1977). Endangered plant species of the Ogasawara
Islands. Notes from Waimea Arboretum 3(2): 8-12. (Tentative list of 31
‘endangered’; 17 ‘rare’ and 6 ‘depleted’ taxa.)
Additional References
Toyota, T. (1981). Flora of Bonin Island. Abochsha, Kamakura. 396 pp. (Covers 236
taxa in Japanese, colour photographs.)
Tuyama, T. (1972). The status of the Bonin Islands flora in the Pacific. In Graham, A.
(Ed.), Floristics and Palaeofloristics of Asia and Eastern North America. Elsevier,
Amsterdam. Pp. 79-81. (Discussion of floristic affinities.)
Tuyama, T. and Asami, S. (1970). The Nature in the Bonin Islands, 2 vols. Hirokawa
Shoten, Tokyo. (1 - Notes on flora and fauna, in Japanese; 2 - coloured
illustrations.)
Wilson, E.H. (1919). The Bonin Islands and their ligneous vegetation. J. Arnold Arb.
1: 97-115. (Descriptive account with lists of important trees, shrubs and climbers.)
Oman
Area 271,950 sq. km
Population 1,181,000
Floristics A very provisional estimate is 1100 species (Edmondson, 1980; A.G.
Miller, 1984, in litt.), with up to 50 endemic species (Miller, in /itt.). Most endemics
concentrated in the southern part of Dhofar.
Floristic affinities of the south (southern Dhofar) Sudano-Deccanian, with Africa, Yemen
and southern India. Affinities of northern Dhofar and the edge of the Empty Quarter
Saharo-Sindian, with the Sahara and north-west India. Affinities of northern Oman: low
altitudes Irano-Turanian, with Iran; at higher altitudes, affinities with western Himalayas.
Vegetation Most of country desert to semi-desert with patches of extreme verdure
on mountain masses and along the coastal strip. In extreme south Oman (part of Dhofar),
on a coastal strip 100 miles long and up to 20 miles deep, the vegetation is rather atypical,
consisting of grassland, thick scrub and forest with a very low canopy. On the mountains
there is extensive cover of grassland and thicket, and a low juniper ‘‘forest’’ on Jabal
272
Oman
Akhdar in the north. The Musandam peninsula in the north consists mostly of stony
mountains with small patches of alluvium producing rich grassy pastures.
Checklists and Floras Works relating to the Arabian peninsula as a whole are
outlined under Saudi Arabia. See also:
Mandaville, J.P. (1977). Plants. In Harrison, D.L. et al. (Eds), Scientific Results of the
Oman Flora and Fauna Survey 1975. J. Oman Studies, Special Report, Ministry of
Education and Culture. Pp. 229-267. (Includes list of plant species collected from
the mountains of northern Oman.)
Radcliffe-Smith, A. (1979). Flora. In Interim Report on the Results of the Oman Flora
and Fauna Survey, Dhofar, 1977. Sultanate of Oman. Pp. 41-48. (Selected species
only; brief description of vegetation, with colour plates.)
A new checklist of the flora of Oman by A.G. Miller and R. Whitcombe is in preparation
which they hope will be published in 1985.
Field-guides
Mandaville, J.P. (1978). Wild Flowers of Northern Oman. Bartholomew Books,
London. 64 pp. (85 species, illustrated in colour by D. Bovey; available in Arabic
and English.)
Information on Threatened Plants No published lists of rare or threatened
plants. Two species from Oman are included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book (1978):
Dionysia mira and Ceratonia sp. nov., now Ceratonia oreothauma.
Voluntary Organizations There is a Natural History Group, based at the Natural
History Museum.
Useful Addresses
Conservation Adviser, Diwan of Royal Court Affairs, The Palace, Muscat.
Natural History Museum, Ministry of National Heritage and Culture, P.O. Box 668,
Muscat.
Additional References
Edmondson, J.R. (1980). Botanical collections from Oman, February-March 1980.
Unpublished report. 16 pp. |
Radcliffe-Smith, A. (1980). The vegetation of Dhofar. In Scientific Results of the
Oman Flora and Fauna Survey 1977 (Dhofar). J. Oman Studies, Special Report No.
2. Pp. 59-86. (Includes systematic plant list.)
A group of IUCN consultants will be in Oman in 1985 to investigate setting up reserves,
conservation laws, etc.
Pakistan
Area 803,941 sq. km
Population 98,971,000
Floristics 5500-6000 vascular plant species (M.N. Chaudhri, 1984, in litt.); c. 300
of these are endemic (Ali, 1978). Centres of endemism are in western and northern
mountain regions, over 1200 m (Ali, 1978).
273
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Vegetation Little natural vegetation left due to agricultural encroachment,
overgrazing and urbanization. In the south (Sind, Baluchistan), extensive areas of semi-
desert and desert, with tropical thorn scrub of Prosopis, Capparis and Acacia; subtropical
dry evergreen scrub to 1000 m, greatly modified by grazing and fuelwood harvesting; small
patches of broadleaved forests with Quercus and Juglans on mountains above 1500 m;
Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest between 900-1650 m; temperate coniferous forest
between 1650-3000 m; ‘‘juniper tracts’? in Baluchistan at 2000-3000 m with Juniperus
macropoda, Pistacia and Fraxinus; alpine scrub between 2850-3600 m with Abies, Betula
and Rhododendron; riverine forest along the Indus; mangrove swamps along the Sind
coast (Stewart, 1982). Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 10 sq.
km/annum out of a total of 8600 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras The national Flora is:
Nasir, E. and Ali, S.I. (Eds) (1970-1979). Flora of West Pakistan, continued as Flora
of Pakistan (1980- ). Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad. (Presently
157 fascicles, covering c. 160 families.)
See also:
Stewart, R.R. (1972). An Annotated Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of West
Pakistan and Kashmir. Islamabad. 1028 pp. (Part of Nasir and Ali, 1970-1979,
Flora of West Pakistan, cited above; enumeration of 128 ferns, 23 gymnosperms,
c. 1140 monocotyledons and c. 4500 dicotyledon taxa, including introductions.)
Pakistan is included in the Flora of British India (Hooker, 1872-1897), cited in Appendix
1, and for ferns in Beddome (1892) and the companion volume by Nayar and Kaur (1972),
both of which are cited in Appendix 1. The North-West Frontier Province is covered by the
incomplete Flora Iranica (1963- ), cited in Appendix 1. Other relevant works include:
Bamber, C.J. (1916). Plants of the Punjab: A Descriptive Key to the Flora of the
Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Kashmir. Govt Printing Press, Lahore.
652 pp.
Jafri, S.M.H. (1966). The Flora of Karachi (Coastal West Pakistan). Book
Corporation, Karachi. 375 pp. (Covers 403 native vascular plant species.)
Information on Threatened Plants On 18 March 1984 WWF-Pakistan launched a
Plant Conservation Programme, which includes the identification of threatened plants. A
preliminary list of c. 500 species, suspected to be rare or threatened, has been compiled by
K.H. Sheikh, based on accounts of c. 160 families in Nasir and Ali (1978- ).
IUCN also has a preliminary list by S.I. Ali which includes 8 threatened medicinal plants
and 10 other rare species.
Voluntary Organizations
WWE-Pakistan, P.O. Box 1312, Lahore.
Botanic Gardens
Botanical Garden, Karachi.
Botanical Gardens, Punjab University, New Campus, Lahore.
Botanical Gardens, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad.
Government College Botanical Garden, Lahore.
Pakistan Forest Institute Botanical Garden, Peshawar.
274
Pakistan
Useful Addresses
National Herbarium, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, House 97G, Street 1,
F-7/4, Islamabad.
CITES Management and Scientific Authority: National Council for Conservation of
Wildlife in Pakistan, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Government of
Pakistan, 4-G, Street No. 51 F. 6/4, Islamabad.
Additional References
Ali, S.I. (1978). The flora of Pakistan: some general and analytical remarks. Notes
Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 36: 427-439. (Describes ‘Flora of Pakistan’ project;
notes on endemism.)
Kitamura, S. (Ed.) (1964). Plants of West Pakistan and Afghanistan. Kyoto Univ. 283
pp. (Results of Kyoto Univ. expedition to Karakoram and Hindukush, 1955.)
Stewart, R.R. (1982). History and exploration of plants in Pakistan and adjoining
areas. In Nasir, E. and Ali, S.I. (Eds), Flora of Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural
Research Council, Islamabad. 186 pp. (Published as a separate fascicle of the
Flora.)
Panama
Area 78,513 sq. km
Population 2,134,000
Floristics An estimated 8000-9000 species of vascular plants (Gentry, 1982); 1226
endemic taxa (IUCN figures). Areas high in endemism are Santa Rita Ridge, El Valle de
Anton and Cerros Azul, Pirre, Campana, Jefe and Pilon.
Vegetation Principally tropical forest; under the Holdridge system, Panama has
the following Life Zones: Tropical| Moist Forest (extensive areas along the Caribbean
seaboard), Tropical Dry Forest (mainly in the south), Subtropical Moist Forest (small
strips surrounding Tropical Dry Forest), Montane Wet Forest and Lower Montane Wet
Forest (along the Cordillera Central east from Costa Rica, the former small in extent),
surrounded by Subtropical Dry Forest on either side; and two Transition Zones: Tropical
Moist Forest (Transition) (the major part of the east of Panama, from the Darién to the
Pacific coast), and Tropical Dry Forest (Transition) (smaller areas also in the east)
(Holdridge and Budowski, 1959; Porter, 1973). Also extensive mangrove, especially on
Pacific coast. Panama’s largest and most species-rich forest is in Darién Province, partly
protected but much threatened.
According to FAO/UNEP (1981), estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved
forest 360 sq. km/annum out of 41,650 sq. km; according to Myers (1980, cited in
Appendix 1), out of 40,816 sq. km officially classified as forests, 38,873 sq. km is lowland
rain forest and 1736 sq. km moist montane forest. But he states that reputedly at least
10,000 sq. km of these have been seriously disrupted by slash-and-burn agriculture,
especially on the Panama Canal watersheds.
Checklists and Floras Panama is covered by the Flora Mesoamericana Project,
described in Appendix 1, as well as by the family and generic monographs of Flora
Neotropica (cited in Appendix 1). The country Flora is:
275
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Woodson, R.E. et al. (1943-1980). Flora of Panama. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 30-67.
(All families covered, but numerous new species and new records discovered
subsequently.)
Staff at the Missouri Botanical Garden are making final revisions to the Flora of Panama
Database in preparation for the first Flora of Panama Checklist. The following cover parts
of Panama:
Croat, T. (1978). Flora of Barro Colorado Island. Stanford Univ. Press, California.
943 pp. (Includes account of vegetation and map; covers 1369 taxa of vascular
plants for a 15.6 sq. km island in Gatun Lake.)
Johnston, I.M. (1949). Flora of San Jose Island. Sargentia 8: 1-306.
Standley, P.C. (1928). Flora of the Panama Canal Zone. Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 27:
1-416.
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. IUCN is
preparing a threatened plant list for release in a forthcoming report The List of rare,
threatened and endemic plants of Middle America. Latest IUCN statistics, based upon this
work: endemic taxa - Ex:2, E:19, V:35, R:92, 1:51, K:830, nt:197; non-endemics rare or
threatened worldwide - E:5, V:31, R:16, 1:3 (world categories).
Threatened plants are mentioned in several papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular W.G.
D’Arcy on endangered landscapes in the region (pp. 89-104), J.T. Mickel on rare
and endangered ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore on endangerment in palms
(pp. 267-282).
Botanic Gardens
Summit Gardens, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, address below.
Useful Addresses
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, P.O. Box 2072, Balboa, Panama; and APO,
Miami, Florida 34002, U.S.A.
CITES Management Authority: Direccién Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables
(RENARB), Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario, Apdo 2016-Paraiso,
Corregimiento de Ancon, Panama 5.
Additional References
Croat, T.B. and Busey, P. (1975). Geographical affinities of the Barro Colorado Island
Flora. Brittonia 27: 127-135.
Gentry, A.H. (1982). Phytogeographic patterns as evidence for a Chocd Refuge. In
Prance, G.T. (Ed.) (1982), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 112-136.
Holdridge, L.R. and Budowski, G. (1959). Mapa Ecoldgica de Panama. Instituto
Interamericano Ciencias, Agricolas, Turrialba, Costa Rica. (Life Zone map.)
Porter, D.M. (1973). The vegetation of Panama: a review. In Graham, A. (Ed.) (1973),
cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 168-201. (Review of knowledge and papers on Panamanian
vegetation.)
RARE (1983). Draft plan for the development of a private sector initiative in natural
resource and environment programs in the Republic of Panama. RARE, c/o
WWE-U.S. (address under U.S.A.) 42 pp.
Tosi, J.A., Jr. (1970). Mapa Ecoldgico de Panama. Programa de las Naciones Unida
para Desarollo, Rome.
276
Papua New Guinea
Area 462,840 sq. km
Population 3,601,000
Floristics Good (1960) estimates that the island of New Guinea, of which Papua
New Guinea is the eastern portion, has c. 9000 angiosperm species, of which 90% endemic,
and Parris (1985, cited in Appendix 1) estimates that it has c. 2000 fern species; R. Johns
(1984, in litt.) believes there to be more than 11,000 vascular plant species. There are 1465
genera in New Guinea, of which 124 are endemic (van Balgooy, in Paijmans, 1976).
According to Gressitt (1982), 55% of the vascular flora of Papua New Guinea is endemic.
The flora of the lowland forests is mainly related to that of Malesia, whereas the montane
flora is mainly related to that of Australasia (Paijmans, 1976).
Vegetation c. 85% has some form of forest cover, including subclimax secondary
forest. Tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rain forests on the coastal plains;
these forests differ markedly from those elsewhere in Malesia with dipterocarps poorly
represented; extensive limestone rain forests, especially in west (Whitmore, 1984).
Extensive mangroves, brackish-water forest with the salt-water palm (Nypa fruticans),
freshwater swamp-forest with sago palm (Metroxylon sagu), particularly along the south
coasts around the Gulf of Papua and along the Sepik and Fly rivers; Saccharum/Imperata
grassland on alluvial plains; dry evergreen forests and mixed savanna woodlands, with
Acacia and Proteaceae in south-west. Much of the country is mountainous, rising to over
4000 m in the central highlands; montane forests above 1200 m with Araucaria,
Castanopsis, Lithocarpus, Nothofagus; alpine vegetation above 4000 m (e.g. on Mt
Wilhelm). Extensive Jmperata and Themeda grasslands due to fires, and forest clearance
for. shifting and permanent agriculture (Paijmans, 1976; Whitmore, 1975b, cited in
Appendix 1).
Estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved forest 220 sq. km/annum out of a
total of 337,100 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981); however, c. 40,000 sq. km of forestland have
been either denuded or rendered unproductive, and another 2500 sq. km, including at least
250 sq. km of primary forest, are cleared each year for shifting cultivation (figures quoted
in Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Over 1000 sq. km of primary forest were cleared in
1978 as a result of commercial logging (figures quoted in Myers, 1980).
For vegetation maps see:
Haantjens, H.A. (Ed.) (1964-1965). CSIRO Land Research Series. Melbourne. (Land
use and evaluations; includes maps of land use and forest types at 1:250,000. Vol.
10 - Buna-Kokoda area; 12 - Wanigela-Cape Vogel area; 14 - Port Moresby-
Kairuku area.) ;
Paijmans, K. (1975). Vegetation Map of Papua New Guinea (1:1,000,000) and
Explanatory Notes to the Vegetation Map of Papua New Guinea. Land Research
Series no. 35, Melbourne.
Papua New Guinea is included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958),
and on the vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora
Malesiana region at scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras Papua New Guinea is included in the incomplete but very
detailed Flora Malesiana (1948- ), cited in Appendix 1. National accounts include:
277
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea (1978- ). Melbourne Univ. Press.
(2 vols so far. Vol. 1, 1978, edited by J.S. Womersley, includes introductory
chapter on vegetation; keys, treatments of Combretaceae, Magnoliaceae, Meliaceae
and many smaller families. Vol. 2, 1981, edited by E.E. Henty, covers
Elaeocarpaceae, Juglandaceae, Loranthaceae and other families.)
Johns, R.J. and Stevens, P.F. (1971). Mount Wilhelm flora: a checklist of the species.
Bot. Bull. Dept Forests Papua New Guinea 6. 60 pp. (Checklist of high-altitude
flora.)
Royen, P. van (1959). Compilation of Keys to the Families and Genera of Angiosperms
and Gymnosperms in New Guinea, 3 vols. Rijksherbarium, Leiden.
Royen, P. van (Ed.) (1980-1983). The Alpine Flora of New Guinea, 4 vols. Cramer,
FL-9490, Vaduz, Liechtenstein. (1 - Comprehensive account of physical and
biological features; 2 - keys and descriptions of gymnosperms, monocotyledons; 3,4
— angiosperms.)
Streimann, H. (1983). The Plants of the Upper Watut Watershed of Papua New
Guinea. National Botanic Garden, Canberra. 209 pp. (2114 vascular plant taxa,
including 325 fern taxa, in checklist of collections with notes on ecology.)
See also the botanical results of the Archbold expeditions, including treatments of new
species and revisions of some families and genera, based principally on expeditions made
between 1933 and 1939. Published as:
Merill, E.D. and Perry, L.M. (Eds) (1939-1949). Plantae Papuanae Archboldianae, 1-8.
J. Arnold Arbor. 20-30.
Perry, L.M. (1949-1953). Plantae Archboldianae, 9-13. [bid., 30: 139-165; 32: 369-389;
34: 191-257.
Smith, A.C. (1941-1944). Studies of Papuasian plants, 1-6. [bid., 22: 60-80; 22:
231-252; 22: 497-528; 23: 417-443; 25: 104-298.
Contributions to the flora and vegetation of New Guinea have been published in the
journal Nova Guinea (Contributions to the anthropology, botany, geology and zoology of
the Papuan region).
Field-guides
Havel, J.J. (1975). Training Manual for the Forestry College 3(2): Botanical
Taxonomy. PNG Forestry Dept, Port Moresby. 317 pp. (Identification manual for
forest botanists.)
Johns, R.J. (1975-1976). Common Forest Trees of Papua New Guinea, 12 parts.
Forestry College, Bulolo. (Keys, descriptions and drawings; 1-3 revised 1983,
Forestry Dept, PNG Univ., Lae.)
Johns, R.J. (1979- ). The Ferns and Fern Allies of Papua New Guinea, 12 parts so far.
(Parts 1-5: Forestry College, Bululo; parts 6-12: PNG University of Technology,
Lae.)
Royen, P. van (1964-1970). Manual of the Forest Trees of Papua and New Guinea,
9 parts. Forestry Dept, Port Moresby. (Descriptions, keys, line drawings of selected
trees. Part 1 - Combretaceae, revised 1969 by M.J.E. Coode; Forestry Dept, Lae.
Other parts include Anacardiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Sapindaceae and
Sterculiaceae.)
Information on Threatened Plants None, but lists of rare and threatened species
are to be compiled by a recently established ‘Flora Committee’ (J.R. Croft, 1985, in /itt.).
See also:
278
Papua New Guinea
Kores, P. (1977). Papua New Guinea’s orchids: an exploited resource. Science in New
Guinea 5: 51-66. (Paper presented to the PNG Botanical Society, Wau Ecology
Institute, October 1977; describes the threats to orchids.)
Specht, R.L., Roe, E.M. and Boughton, V.H. (Eds) (1974). Conservation of Major
Plant Communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Australian J. Bot. Supp.
Series 7. 667 pp. (Detailed assessment of conservation status of major plant
communities.)
Botanic Gardens
Gardens of the University, Box 4820, University, Port Moresby.
National Botanic Garden and Herbarium, Office of Forests, Division of Botany, P.O.
Box 314, Lae.
Useful Addresses
Department of Forestry, University of Lae, Institute of Technology (Unitec), Lae.
Wildlife Branch, Office of Environment and Conservation, P.O. Box 6601, Boroko.
CITES Management Authority: Director of Forestry, Department of Primary Industry,
Frangipani Street, P.O. Box 5055, Boroko.
Additional References
Gressitt, J.L. (Ed.) (1982). Biogeography and Ecology of New Guinea, 2 vols. Junk,
Hague. (1 - General and physical background, man’s impact, vegetation and flora;
2 - fauna, conservation.)
Paijmans, K. (Ed.) (1976). New Guinea Vegetation. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 213 pp.
(Includes lists of medicinal and other useful species.)
Paraguay
—
Area 406,750 sq. km
Population 3,576,000
Floristics An estimated 7000-8000 plant species (R. Spichiger, pers. comm.,
quoted in Toledo, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). One of the least known countries botanically
in South America.
Vegetation West of the Rio Paraguay, which bisects the country from north to
south, the Gran Chaco, a plain covered with savannas and xerophytic scrub vegetation. In
the centre, around the Rio Paraguay, seasonally inundated swamp (the Pantanal). East of
the river, where 96% of the population live, is palm savanna with fertile grasslands and
wooded hills in the south; in the north subtropical seasonal evergreen forest, exploited
commercially (FAO/UNEP, 1981). On the eastern border, along the Rio Parana, where
rainfall is heaviest, the only tropical rain forest in Paraguay, 25,000-40,000 ha of it
affected by the Itaph Dam (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Further west, as rainfall decreases, the
vegetation changes to subtropical seasonal evergreen lowland forest.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 1900 sq. km/annum out of
40,700 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
Checklists and Floras About half of Paraguay, that part north of the Tropic of
Capricorn, is covered in the family and generic monographs of Flora Neotropica,
described in Appendix 1. The country Floras are:
279
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
Chodat, R. and Hassler, E. (1898-1907). Plantae Hasslerianae. Bull. Herb. Boissier,
Geneva. Many parts, in Vols 3-5 and 7, each cited in Bertoni, Mascherpa and
Spichiger (1982), below. (Most complete checklist available.)
Lopez, J. (1979). Arboles de la Regién Oriental del Paraguay. Asuncion. 227 pp.
Michalowski, M. (1954). Catalogo sistemdatico de las malezas del Alto Paraguay.
Servicio Técnico Interamericano de Cooperacién Agricola, Boletin No. 169,
Asuncion. 158 pp. Mimeo. (Annotated list.)
Spichiger, R. and Bocquet, G. (Eds.) (1983- ). Flora del Paraguay. 10 year project co-
ordinated by the Geneva Herbarium, Switzerland, to produce a multi-part Flora, in
Spanish, to be printed by the Missouri Botanical Garden. Includes a computerized
database. 2 vols so far, including Annonaceae, by R. Spichiger and J.-M.
Mascherpa.
Teague, G.W. (1965). Plants of central Paraguay. Anales del Museo de Historia
Natural, Serie 2, 7(4): 1-55. Montevideo. (List of species collected, with economic
and medicinal values.)
Boletin del Inventario Biolégico (Biological Inventory News), published quarterly by the
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay, Servicio Forestal Nacional, outlines
present and future activities on the inventory of plants and animals and on the
establishment of a natural history museum.
Information on Threatened Plants None.
Voluntary Organizations
Sociedad de Botanica y Zoologia del Paraguay, Caja de Correo 811, Asuncion.
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico y Zoolégico, Parque y Museo de Historia Natural, Asuncion.
Useful Addresses
Departamento de Manejo de Bosques, Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Ministerio
de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Edificio Patria, Tacuary 443-4° piso, Asuncion.
Herbarium, Conservatoire et Jardin Botaniques de la Ville de Genéve, Case Postal 60,
1292 Chambésy, Switzerland.
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay, Projecto de Inventario Biolégico
Nacional, Edificio Patria, Piso 6, Tacuary 443, Asuncion.
CITES Management Authority: Director del Departamento de Control Agricola
Forestal y Conservacion de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio de Agricultura y
Ganaderia, Calle Pte. Franco 472, Asuncion.
CITES Scientific Authority: Jefe del Departamento de Manejo de Bosques, Parques
Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Servicio Forestal Nacional, Ministerio de Agricultura y
Ganaderia, Edificio Patria, Tacuary 443-4° piso, Asuncion.
Additional References
Arenas, P. (1981). Ethnobotdanica Lengua-Maskoy. Fundacion para la Educacion, la
Ciencia y la Cultura. Buenos Aires, Argentina. 358 pp. (Flora and ethnobotany of
the Chaco.)
Bertoni, B.S., Mascherpa, J.-M. and Spichiger, R. (1982). Datos bibliograficos para el
estudio de la vegetacion y de la flora del Paraguay. Candollea 37: 277-313.
(Bibliography on Paraguay vegetation; in French and Spanish.)
Cabrera, A.L. (1970). La vegetacién del Paraguay en el cuadro fitogeografico de
América del Sur. Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 2, suppl. (Not seen.)
Chodat, R. and Vischer, W. (1916-19207). La végétation du Paraguay. Bull. Soc. Bot.
Genéve. 14 parts in vol. 8 onwards. Reprinted in 1977 as one book by Cramer,
280
Paraguay
FL-9490, Vaduz, Liechtenstein. Includes many line drawings of individual plants
and some species descriptions, but is not a Flora in the normal sense.
Esser, G. (1982). Vegetationsgliederung Und Kakteenvegetation Von Paraguay. Akad.
d. Wiss. u. d. Literatur, Mainz, Germany. 113 pp. (Vegetation map.)
Peru
Area 1,285,215 sq. km
Population 19,197,000
Floristics Gentry (1980) suggested that ‘‘well over’’ 20,000 vascular plant species
will eventually be found in Peru. 14,000 species will be included in the published Flora
(A. Gentry, 1984, pers. comm.). Over 900 orchid species (Schweinfurth, 1958, 1970).
Vegetation Along the coast, extending inland up to 100 km, is a desert region that
includes the northern part of the Atacama Desert. Due to precipitation from fog,
vegetation is luxuriant (the Loma Formation), consisting of annuals, shrubs and scattered
trees, with many succulents and high in endemics (Ferreyra, 1953, 1977). In extreme
northwest is woodland (the Algarrobal Formation) (Ferreyra, 1977), much degraded from
agriculture and grazing (Unesco, 1981, cited in Appendix 1). Further inland and into the
Andes to 4000 m are deciduous thickets and montane deciduous scrub. Above 4000 m, on
both slopes, are the paramo (open herbaceous/grass communities, mainly north of 8°S.)
and the puna, which is drier, colder and includes dwarf shrubs (mainly 12-16°S.). The
eastern slopes of the Andes range from moist to wet depending on elevation: at
2000-4000 m subhumid montane forests and scattered thorn forests; below 2000 m
evergreen submontane and semi-deciduous forests. In eastern Peru tropical rain forest
constitutes over 610,000 sq. km (8.7%) of the Amazonian forest (Unesco, 1981); in
southern Amazon dry forest similar to the Cerrado of Brazil.
Estimated rate of deforestation for closed broadleaved forest 2600 sq. km/annum out of
693,100 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981). Areas protected include the vast Manu National
Park (15,328 sq. km), which spans Andean and Amazonian vegetation and may contain
more plant species than any other protected area in the world.
Checklists and Floras Peru is covered by the family and generic monographs of
Flora Neotropica, as described in Appendix 1. Floristic knowledge of the Tumbes (Pacific)
region is summarized by Gentry (1978), cited in Appendix 1. The country Floras are:
Flora of Peru (various authors) (1936- ). Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 13 (1-5C),
and Fieldiana, Bot. New Series 5, 7, 9, 10 and ll. About 3/4 completed, recently re-
activated as joint project of Field Museum and Missouri Botanical Garden, in
collaboration with Universidad Major de San Marcos and Universidad Nacional de
Amazonia Peruana. Includes an ecological inventory and a search for economically
useful plants.
Schweinfurth, C. (1958-1961). Orchids of Peru. Fieldiana, Bot. 30(1-4).
Schweinfurth, C. (1970). First supplement to the orchids of Peru. Fieldiana, Bot. 33:
1-80.
Tryon, R. (1964). The ferns of Peru: Polypodiaceae (Dennstaedtieae to Oleandreae).
Contr. Gray Herb. 194: 1-253. (176 species, which, according to the author, is about
1/4 of the Peruvian fern flora.)
281
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
See also:
Cerrate de Ferreyra, E. (1979). Vegetacién del Valle de Chiquian: Provincia de
Bolognesi, Departamento de Ancha. Los Pinus, Lima. 65 pp.
Vargas Calderon, C. (1974). La Flora del Departamento de Madre de Dios (Pert).
Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima. 93 pp. (Species lists.)
Williams, L. (1936). Woods of northeastern Peru. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 15:
1-587. (Descriptions of trees, their habitats, local uses, physical properties and wood
structures; plant associations in N.E. Peru.)
Information on Threatened Plants There is no national Red Data Book. See:
Ferreyra, R. (1977). Endangered plant communities in Andean and Coastal Peru. In
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. Pp. 150-157.
(Includes several endangered species lists for different vegetation types.)
Gentry, A.H. (1977). Endangered plant species and habitats of Ecuador and
Amazonian Peru. In Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1.
Pp. 136-149.
Individual threatened plants are mentioned in several other papers in:
Prance, G.T. and Elias, T.S. (Eds) (1977), cited in Appendix 1. See in particular
J.T. Mickel on endangered and rare ferns (pp. 323-328), H.E. Moore Jr. on
endangerment in palms (pp. 267-282), and P. Ravenna on endangered bulbous
plants (pp. 257-266).
Other references:
Dourojeanni, M.T. (1968). Estado actual de la conservacion de la flora y la fauna en el
Peru. Ciencia Interamericana 9(106): 51-64.
Laws Protecting Plants Ley Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre, Decreto Ley No. 21147
of 13 May 1975, assigns the Ministerio de Agricultura jurisdiction over plants (and
animals). Decreto Supremo No. 158-177-AG of 13 March 1977 directs the Ministerio to
assign plants (and animals) to specified threatened categories, and thereby afford them
legal protection (Fuller and Swift, 1984, cited in Appendix 1).
Voluntary Organizations
Asociacion Peruana para la Conservacion (APECO), Atahualpa 335, Lima 18.
Pro Defensa de la Naturaleza (PRODENA), Avenida Nicolas de Pierola, 742, Of. 703,
Edificio Internacional, Lima.
A relevant reference:
Lieberman, G.A. and Swift, B. (1984). The development of private voluntary
organizations dealing with natural resources and environmental management in Peru
and a strategy for enhancement of their programs. RARE, c/o WWF-US, 1601
Connecticut Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009, U.S.A. (RARE have also
produced a list of these organizations, 1983.)
Botanic Gardens
Jardin Botanico de ia Universidad Nacional Agraria, Apto 456 La Molina, Lima.
Jardin Botanico de la Universidad Nacional de Huanuco ‘‘Hermilio Valdizan’’, Cuidad
Universitaria, Cayhuayna.
Jardin Botanico de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Jiron Puno 1002,
Lima.
282
Peru
Useful Addresses
Centro de Datos para la Conservacion, Departamento de Manejo Forestal, Universidad
Agraria La Molina, Apdo 456, Lima.
Museo de Historia Natural ‘‘Javier Prado’’, Ave. Arenales 1256, Apto Postal 11010,
Lima 14.
CITES Management and Scientific Authorities: Direccién General Forestal y de Fauna,
Ministerio de Agricultura, Jiron Natalio Sanchez 220, 3° Piso, Jesus Maria, Lima.
Additional References
Ellenberg, H. (1959). Typen tropischer urwaltder in Peru. Schweiz. Ziets. Forstw. 110:
109-187.
Ferreyra, R.H. (1953). Communidades vegetales de algunas Lomas Costaneras del
Peru. Estacién Experimental Agricola de ‘‘La Molina’’, Bol. No. 53. 88 pp.
Ferreyra, R.H. (1960). Algunas aspectos fitogeograficos de Peri. Rev. Inst. Geogr. 6:
41-88.
Gentry, A.H. (1980). The Flora of Peru: A conspectus. Fieldiana, Bot. New Series 5:
1-73.
Mapa Ecologico del Peru: Guia Explicativa. Oficina Nacional de Evaluacion de
Recursos Naturales (ONERN), 1976.
Svenson, H.K. (1945). Vegetation of the coast of Ecuador and Peru and its relation to
the Galapagos Islands. Am. J. Bot. 33: 394-498.
Weberbauer, A. (1936). Phytogeography of the Peruvian Andes. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Bot. Ser. 13: 13-81.
Weberbauer, A. (1945). E/ mundo vegetal de los Andes Peruanos. Ministerio de
Agricultura, Lima.
Philippines
The Philippines comprise 7100 islands of which 800 are inhabited; the largest are Luzon
(104,688 sq. km), Mindanao (94,630 sq. km) and Visayas (50,000 sq. km). Nearly all the
larger islands have interior mountain ranges; the highest point is 2954 m at Mt Apo on
Mindanao.
Area 300,000 sq. km
Population 53,395,000
Floristics c. 8000 flowering plant species of which 3500 are endemic (Madulid,
1982); c. 900 fern species (Parris, 1985, cited in Appendix 1). Floristic affinities with
Borneo, Malaysia, the Sino-Himalayan region and Australia. The island of Palawan has
c. 1500 flowering plant species; while species endemism was once thought to be as high as
15%, recent research based on Flora Malesiana suggests it is nearer 5% (A. Podzorski,
1984, pers. comm.).
Vegetation Tropical forests originally covered most of the Philippines; now
extensively deforested. Most remaining forests modified by shifting cultivation (‘kaingin’);
the only extensive areas of forest outside national parks are on Palawan. Where native
vegetation survives, it consists of mixed dipterocarp forest up to 800 m; tropical montane
and subalpine (mossy) forests; small areas of ‘molave’ forest on limestone, with
Pterocarpus and Vitex; seasonally dry monsoon forest on the western coastal strip; pine
283
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
forests (with Pinus insularis and P. merkusii) in uplands of north and west Luzon and
Mindanao; extensive kogon grassland (Imperata cylindrica), scrub and secondary forest.
Mangroves cover 2450 sq. km (FAO/UNEP, 1981).
According to FAO/UNEP (1981), estimated rate of deforestation of closed broadleaved
forest 900 sq. km/annum out of a total of 93,200 sq. km (only 31% of the country);
according to government surveys using Landsat imagery for 1972-1976 and aerial
photographs, forests covered an estimated 114,616 sq. km, of which 60,119 sq. km were
‘<full-canopy forests’’ (figures quoted in Myers, 1980, cited in Appendix 1). Between 800
and 1400 sq. km of forest (including previously logged forest) are converted to agriculture
by ‘kaingineros’ each year; Landsat surveys reveal that between 1971 and 1976 forests were
converted to other land uses at an average rate of 3000 sq. km/annum (figures quoted in
Myers, 1980).
The Philippines are included on the Vegetation Map of Malaysia (van Steenis, 1958), and
on the vegetation map of Malesia (Whitmore, 1984), both covering the Flora Malesiana
region at scale 1:5,000,000 and cited in Appendix 1.
Checklists and Floras The Philippines are included in the incomplete, but very
detailed Flora Malesiana (1948- ), cited in Appendix 1. The standard checklist is:
Merrill, E.D. (1923-1926). An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants, 4 vols.
Bureau of Printing, Manila. (Annotated list including 5532 endemic vascular plant
taxa.)
Other accounts include:
Brown, W.H. (Ed.) (1920). Minor Forest Products of Philippine Forests, 3 vols.
Bureau of Forestry, Manila. (Comprehensive account of Philippine plants with
economic uses.)
Brown, W.H. (1951-1958). Useful Plants of the Philippines, 3 vols. Bureau of Forestry,
Manila. (Reprinted edition.)
Copeland, E.B. (1958-1960). Fern Flora of the Philippines, 3 parts. Monogr. Philippine
Inst. Sci. Tech., 6. Manila.
Merrill, E.D. (1912). Flora of Manila. Bureau of Science, Manila. 490 pp. (Reprinted
1974, Bookmark, Manila.)
Pancho, J.V. (1983- ). Vascular Flora of Mount Makiling and Vicinity (Luzon;
Philippines). Kalikasan Suppl., New Mercury, Quezon. (Vol. 1 - Introduction to
flora, keys, treatments of all gymnosperms and c. 60 angiosperm families including
Dipterocarpaceae, Leguminosae and Moraceae. 476 pp. Vols 2-4 - in prep.)
Descriptions of new species are often published in the Philippine J. Science.
Information on Threatened Plants The main list is:
Gutierrez, H.G. (1974). The endemic flowering plant species of the Philippines. Bound
manuscript, 242 pp. (List of 5221 endemic taxa, assigned to earlier [UCN numerical
system, 0-4, to indicate degree of threat. Taxonomy rather dated and degree of
threat based mainly on literature and number of herbarium specimens.)
Threatened plants are also listed in:
Madulid, D.A. (1982). Plants in peril. Filipinas Journal 3: 8-16. (Mentions 20
threatened plants, lists 2 plants on Appendix I and 5 on Appendix II of CITES.)
Quisumbing, E. (1967). Philippine species of plants facing extinction. Araneta J. Agric.
14: 135-162. (Lists about 100 taxa at risk, including non-endemics.)
284
Philippines
Laws Protecting Plants Act No. 3983 provides protection for the flora and
prescribes conditions under which plants may be collected, kept, sold, exported and for
other purposes. The Bureau of Forestry is charged with enforcing this legislation.
Presidential Decree No. 1152 establishes specific environment management policies and
prescribes environmental quality standards. Among the provisions are ‘‘conserving
threatened flora as well as increasing their rate of propagation’’.
Presidential Decree No. 1586 requires the submission of Environmental Impact Statements
on projects in critical areas among which are ‘‘those which constitute the habitats of any
endangered or threatened species of indigenous Philippine wildlife (flora and fauna)’’.
Voluntary Organizations
Association of Systematic Biologists of the Philippines, c/o Botany Division, National
Museum, P.O. Box 2659, Manila.
Philippine Wildlife Conservation Foundation, Bancora Building, Amorsolo Street,
Legaspi Village, Makati, Rizal, Luzon.
Botanic Gardens
Makiling Botanic Gardens, University of the Philippines, Los Bafios, Laguna 3720.
Manila Zoological and Botanical Garden, Harrison Park, Malate, Manila.
Philippine National Botanic Garden, Real, Quezon.
The Hortorium, Museum of Natural History, U.P. at Los Bafios, College, Laguna.
Useful Addresses
Bureau of Plant Industry, San Adres, Manila.
Forest Research Institute, College, Laguna 3720.
CITES Management Authority: Director Bureau of Forest Development, Ministry of
Natural Resources, Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City.
CITES Scientific Authority: Forest Research Institute, U.P.L.B., College of Forestry,
Laguna.
Additional References
Brown, W.H. (1919). Vegetation of Philippine Mountains. Manila. 434 pp. (Useful
data on physical environment, forest types; many black and white photographs.)
Madulid, D.A. (in prep.). A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names, 3 vols.
(Alphabetical list of 35,000 local names, cross-referenced to scientific names.)
Nemenzo, C.A. (1969). The flora and fauna of the Philippines, 1851-1966: an
annotated bibliography. Part 1: Plants. Nat. Appl. Sci. Bull. Univ. Philipp. 21.
307 pp. (1493 entries; not seen, citation from Frodin.)
Whitford, H.N. (1911). The Forests of the Philippines, 2 parts. Philippine Bureau of
Forestry Bull. 10(1) (94 pp.) and 10(2) (113 pp.). Manila. (1 - Forest types and
products; 2 - descriptions of forest types.)
Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Island District is a British Dependent Territory, situated in the middle of the
South Pacific Ocean, to the west of the Society Islands, between latitudes 23-26°S and
longitudes 125-128°W. It consists of the volcanic Pitcairn Island, Henderson Island (an
elevated limestone island), Ducie Island and Oeno Atoll.
285
Plants in Danger: What do we know?
In 1982 world attention was focused on Henderson Island following a proposal to the U.K.
Government for the construction of a settlement and airstrip there. This prompted 2
reviews of the biological importance of Henderson as one of the very few elevated atolls
with vegetation intact; these are Fosberg et al. (1983) and Serpell et a/. (1983). A popular
account is given by Serpell (1983). The U.K. Government refused the application. Various
conservation groups are now pressing for all or part of the Pitcairn Islands to be
nominated for inscription as a World Heritage Site under the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted in Paris, 1972 (otherwise
known as the World Heritage Convention).
Area 43.5 sq. km
Pitcairn: 5 sq. km; Henderson: 37 sq. km; Ducie: 0.7 sq. km; Oeno: 0.8 sq. km
Population 63, all on Pitcairn Island (1981 census, Times Atlas, 1983)
Floristics By far the richest flora is on Henderson, which has 9 ferns, all of which
are widespread, and 54 native angiosperm taxa, 10 of which are endemic (Fosberg, Sachet
and Stoddart, 1983). Oeno has 2 ferns and 15 angiosperms including 2 endemic taxa
(St John and Philipson, 1960). Ducie has only 3 species; no endemics (St John and
Philipson, 1962). No figure for number of angiosperms on Pitcairn Island, but Brownlie
(1961) lists 20 fern species, of which 2 are endemic.
Vegetation Henderson is one of the least disturbed Pacific islands. It has dense
scrub forest c. 5-10 m tall, with Pandanus tectorius; the central part of the island is more
sparsely vegetated (St John and Philipson, 1962). Pitcairn Island has remnants of rain
forest, scrub and grassland, but the vegetation has been greatly modified, particularly in
the south and centre.
Checklists and Floras The most recent list is that of Fosberg, Sachet and Stoddart
(1983), cited below. The Pitcairn Islands are also included in the Flora of Southeastern
Polynesia (Brown and Brown, 1931-1935), cited in Appendix 1. See also:
Brownlie, G. (1961). Studies on Pacific ferns, 4. The pteridophyte flora of Pitcairn
Island. Pacific Science 15(2): 297-300. (Annotated list of 20 ferns.)
St John, H. and Philipson, W.R. (1960). List of the flora of Oeno Atoll, Tuamotu
Archipelago, south-central Pacific Ocean. Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. 88(3): 401-403.
(Checklist of ferns and angiosperms.)
St John, H. and Philipson, W.R. (1962). An account of the flora of Henderson Island,
South Pacific Ocean. Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. Bot. 1(14): 175-194. (Brief description of
8 ferns, 55 angiosperms.)
Information on Threatened Plants For Henderson Island, the reviews by Fosberg
et al. (1983) and Serpell et al. (1983) outline the known status of the flora; Bidens
hendersonensis, one of the endemics, was included in The IUCN Plant Red Data Book
(1978); for the other islands no information.
Additional References
Fosberg, F.R., Sachet, M.-H. and Stoddart, D.R. (1983). Henderson Island
(Southeastern Polynesia): summary of current knowledge. Atoll Res. Bull. 272.
47 pp. (Physical geography, history of exploration, vegetation, bibliography;
includes revised list of vascular plants of Henderson.)
Rehder, H.A. and Randall, J.E. (1975). Ducie Atoll: its history, physiography and
biota. Atoll Res. Bull. 183. 40 pp.
286
Pitcairn Islands
Serpell, J. (1983). Desert island risk. New Scientist 1356: 320. (Describes the
importance of Henderson Island and threats to its flora and fauna; reprinted in
Threatened Plants Newsletter 11: 14, 1983.)
Serpell, J., Collar, N., Davis, S. and Wells, S. (1983). Submission to the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office on the future conservation of Henderson Island in the
Pitcairn Group. WWF-UK, IUCN, ICBP. 27 pp. Mimeo.
Poland
Area 312,683 sq. km
Population 37,228,000
Floristics 2250-2450 native vascular species, estimated by D.A. Webb (1978,
cited in Appendix 1) from Flora Europaea; 3 endemics (IUCN figures). Elements:
Atlantic, Central European, southern Boreal, Arctic/alpine. Many species reach their
western or eastern distributional limit in Poland.
Vegetation Principally an agricultural landscape, especially in the north and
central lowlands; less than 25% of the country has natural or semi-natural vegetation.
Extensive re-afforestation with pine and spruce, particularly in the foothills of the
Carpathians. In the north-east, fragments of natural forest with oak, lime and hornbeam,
including alder, ash and conifers, notably in the Bialowiéza National Park; in the south,
patches of beech/fir woodland, subalpine spruce and alpine pine forests. Original
extensive cover of steppe grassland confined to poor soils and steep slopes, but swamp and
peat bogs still widespread (Szafer and Zarzycki, 1972).
Checklists and Floras Poland is covered by the completed Flora Europaea (Tutin
et al., 1964-1980, cited in Appendix 1). For national Floras see:
Raciborski, M., Szafer, W., Pawlowski, B. and Jasiewicz, A. (Eds) (1919-1980). Flora
Polska: Rosliny Naczyniowe Polski i Ziem Osciennych, 14 vols. Polska Akademia
Umiejetnosci, Cracow (vols 1-6); Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warsaw (vols
7-14).
Szafer, W., Kulczynski, S. and Pawlowski, B. (1967). Rosliny Polskie (Flora of
Poland). Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warsaw. 1020 pp. (Covers post-1945
Poland; illus.)
Atlases:
Bialobok, S. et al. (Ed.) (1963- ). Atlas rozmiesczenia drzew i krzew6éw w Polsce (Atlas
of distribution of trees and shrubs in Poland). Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe,
Warsaw. (Large-scale dot maps, accompanied b 
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